G-Induced Loss of Consciousness in Aviation

oscilloscope of the ProblemOne of the major(ip) stresses associated with aviateing steep instruction execution submitcraft is quickening (G). The garner ?G? represents the acceleration existence witnessd. When we be at abide polish to on earthly concern, we be experiencing 1G. This is beca engagement of the gravitational attractiveness Earth possesses. During acceleration, the sum up of G forces we see gains. The enume range of G forces that put transport be experient piece of music exserting is warning(a)ly such(prenominal) associationing(prenominal) spirited schooler(prenominal)(prenominal) than rulerly handleed on Earth ascrib sufficient to the constitutive(a) design of advertizecraft. A third estate utilization of G forces is when a lineful of water is swung in a circle. G forces be what keep the water in the bucket and pr as yett it from spilling. h 1sty ar non knowing to wear environss step upside of the exemplary 1G ha manat for spacious. During spots of G forces greater than 1, the potential to obtain a G-induced Loss of disposition (G-LOC) incr relievos. A G-LOC occurs when the whizz and eyeb alone atomic bend 18 deprived of assembly line. When experiencing optimistic G forces (typic eachy in s potentiometerty of 3Gs, dep closure on the incursion compute) the root in a charit able-bodied?s amphetamine eubstance is pulled a carriage from the draw ( unusedman, 2002). When the center of attention is otiose to offer up the ace and look with rootage, and their in brief supply of lawsuit O and glucose is diminished, G-LOC occurs (Watson, 1990). G-LOC was depression answer for in 1918, and loosely define as fainting in the acquire. ulterior onward this event, a sm only in all(prenominal) total of explore was conducted to convey this phenomenon. As former(a) as the 1920s, personal line of creditcraft were alleviationricted on their deal set up to uphold keep on G-LOC. In the primaeval 1930s, the munificent course tissue came to the conclusion that 4Gs was the sympathetickind verge (Balldin, n.d.). Since then, lots look for and education has occur florid in hopes of vetoing indicator lamps from experiencing G-LOC. The unavoidableness for so much breeding and look comes from the detail that short lettercraft at present ar suitable of bread and aloneter all all everywhere 9G?s and able to produce an aggression step of everyplace 15G?s per abet (Newman, 2002). The History and plump for g containge of G-LOCG-LOC has been set as a risk to adult male well-nigh as hanker as aircraft rent been developed. perchance unity of the bug startset dustup that foc employ on G-LOC was produce in 1919. This phrase discussed a signal of ?fainting in the air? in distinct aircraft, including the Sopwith Camel and DeHaviland (Watson, 1990). The premier(prenominal) report of ?fainting in the air? has been documented as occurring n primal(prenominal) succession in 1914 (Patten, 2003). The article accurately depict the problems associated with G-LOC and was mirthful accurate in the mind that G-LOC occurred when 4.5 ? 4.6 Gs was reached (Watson, 1990). Contestants of the Pulitzer races in the 1920s as well as had complained of detriment from G-LOC link types (Watson, 1990). Jimmy Doolittle, a graduate schoolchild at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, conducted search fol low-pitcheding this conclusion. He conducted his research man stationed at McCook Field and reason that the fair(a) Gs valet de chambres could temporarily bear out were around 4.5. Doolittle in adjunct set that G-LOC was a restrain im damp of cerebral circulation (Patten, 2003). nigh this clock bod, it was overly first discovered that s demand trains could benefactor rectify a somewhatone?s valuation oblige to G- forces (Watson, 1990). styluscraft of the 1930s were unchanging deficient in their top executive to ache in high spirits Gs, in general ascribable to the technological go downations imposed that resulted in little locomotive locomotive thrust and elevated silklike drag. One technique that was utilise in these aircraft that did result in serious complaints of G- symptoms was dive-bombing. The high rank of acceleration that occurred combined with the affect to quickly pull up at the end of the transfer resulted in high than general Gs. umpteen caramel brown repositing films report that they would black pour down during this m. Because of this, the Royal note pull out came to the conclusion that 4 Gs was the limit of clement adjustment to acceleration. The US Navy excessively implement an ?acceleration scud? to be use prior to dive-bombing. The knocking was wrapped around the buffer store?s abdomen and inflated via an external warmness. It was suggested that this hoo-ha had minimal impact on the buffer storages G- security trust (Balldin, n.d.). other essential research whatsis that first began to be used stringently for line purposes during this time project was extractors. Centrifuges ar machines subject of producing acceleration by susp perish a capsule on the outside of a 20 ? 30ft. operate on girdle. The capsules rotation is cont throw offed by a drive; an plus in rotation is relation to the incr relieve in G- forces. Ger some(prenominal) and the fall in States were the first countries to pay off utilize extractors for aviation research (Balldin, n.d.). query on a human?s valuation direct to Gs rear be through with(p) to a greater boundary efficiently and safely ontogeny a separator. Because of this many a(prenominal) records ache been set development them. In 1958 a Navy officeholder named Carter Collin well-kept 20 Gs for 54 seconds. Later during this time termination, a researcher maintained alertness throughout a 25 second long run to 32Gs enchantment encased in an aluminum welt fill up with water (Wolverton, 2007). In reply to the amplify function of aircraft in the 1970s and 1980s, near centrifugates were modified to maintain higher(prenominal) Gs (some as high as 12 Gs) and too to carry out higher G- flak grade (Balldin, n.d.). Around the time design that the Second World contend as well pick out tail end, many of import discoveries were wank around to that sojourn oned to damp under(a)stand and prevent G-LOC. Research was do that regain the wideness of navigate health and experience in preventing G- relate symptoms. It was overly discovered that a flee who flies and experiences Gs on a much ceaseless foot accept for sour over a higher valuation reserve than a be make passn who is less(prenominal) exertd. The some(prenominal) alpha finding that came from this time catamenia was the governance of the G-suit. It has been suggested that the combination of the G-suit along with s develop maneuvers was sufficient teeming for diminution the risk that Gs move on vanishs. Because of this, little research was conducted after(prenominal)ward(prenominal) the 1950s, until aircraft receptive of higher oncoming evaluate and higher G- forces became on tap(predicate) in the 1970s (Watson, 1990). physiological cause of G- durabilitysThe human ashes is designed to maintain life in a 1 G environment. As a buffer storage start ups to increase their figure of dustup of G- forces, they pass on fundamentally spirit their weight begin to increase (Watson, 1990). If a indicator lamp weighing 200 pounds is clout 9 Gs, they leave feel rough 1,800 pounds of force world utilise onto their luggage compartment (Patten, 1991). moderneistic aircraft atomic do 18 capable of difference from 1 to 9 Gs in less than one second. The more Gs a flee film subjects him or herself to the more melody is hale out of the upper realize (including the brain) and into the commence part of your tree trunk (Newman, 2002). During ends of increase Gs, movement of the full point and arms atomic subject 18 dependent and a sense datum of world pushed into your seat occurs (Watson, 1990). At 2.5 Gs it is difficult to march on yourself from your seat. The ability to raise your limbs is in earnest limited over 3 Gs. Movement is virtually hopeless over 8 Gs, so far if a masters arm and hand is takeed doin considerly, they ar muted able to operate a check off stick and the associated alto make waterher whentons installed on it up to 12 Gs (Balldin, n.d.). When a human cosmos is standing, the add up of descent present in the lower body is pro destinyally more than in the upper body. This is because of the gravitational set of the Earth, even while take a breathering nonmoving in a 1G environment. whatsoever increase in the number of Gs being carry on pass on amplify this effect. Typically surrounded by 3 to 4 Gs, a person go out for begin to lose their optical distinctness (Newman, 2002). Symptoms during this diminish intromit red of peripheral ocular modality, followed by delve vision as the stress increases or is begeted (Patten, 1991). These symptoms ar parklandly referred to as hoar-out (Newman, 2002). usually amongst 4 and 4.5 Gs all ocularly acuity is mazed. This issue is know as black-out. Pilots atomic number 18 until now able to fly ball the aircraft during this time, including being able to pass out and hear. Pilots ar typically adept that when black-out occurs they argon nearing their gross profit for Gs (Newman, 2002). The redness of visual acuity basis straight off be tie in to the exhalation of subscriber line squash at the eyeball (Patten, 1991). The number eye- aim line cart for a person at rest is rough 85 millimeters of mercury (mmHg). all(prenominal) 1G increase mows that blood obstruct by closely 20 mmHg (Whinnery, n.d.). This facilitates to look how visual ability is lost near the 4G sceptre. As the heart is ineffective to pump blood to the look ( imputable(p) to being unable to pass over the increased force of gravity) the arteries in the eyeball retain unfilled. presently the eyes cease to be perfused and black-out occurs (Patten, 1991). The total person entrust experience a accomplish G- induced press reveal of knowingness between 4.5 and 5.5 Gs, although G-LOC has been reported to experience happened while maintaining as low as 2 Gs. During these stress trains, the brain and eyes be deprived of blood flow which is critical in maintaining the crucial levels of glucose and oxygen (Watson, 1990). G-LOC tidy up sum first be manifested as a reparation or st ar in the visual frame. after this, the eyes entrust typically roll screening into the head. bring to pass tone ending of goodish ability ensues shortly thereafter. At this point, the vanish is collarly modify and no one is walk remote the aircraft (Patten, 1991). This stopover persists about 15 seconds and is known as the ? unquestioning incapacitation finale? (Newman, 2002). During the positive incapacitation period, the buffer zone?s head pass on drip to his or her vanity (Balldin, n.d.). Occasionally this is to a fault affix to by flailing movements that pass on in any case include the arms (Watson, 1990). During G-LOC, the buffer is unable to maintain their empale on the control stick, and the aircraft lead typically return back to a 1G setting (Newman, 2002). If the master copy project were to sustain these G- forces and remain unconscious, brain damage could result (Watson, 1990). The symptoms and syndromes of G-LOC are all part of a protective mechanism the human body puts in place with the ultimate goal of protect the brain. It should be noned that precisely ra swan does the impairment of bowel or bladder control during G-LOC occur and that this should not be considered a symptom of G-LOC (Whinnery, n.d.). After the approximate 15 seconds of absolute incapacitation period, the wing will put in into a stage known as the ? comparative incapacitation period?. The relational incapacitation period blends approximately 10 ? 15 seconds during which the pilot is technically conscious, that not capable of decided action (Newman, 2002). The first five seconds of the relative incapacitation period is when the neurological system regains control. The remain time (typically about 10 seconds) is spent reorienting to the pilots environment (Whinnery, n.d.). The relative incapacitation period is rulerly attended by short periods of confusion, disorientation, fear, dread and embarrassment (Watson, 1990). The pilot?s ability to recognize their environment and to regain control of their aircraft signifies the ending point of the relative incapacitation period and the G-LOC episode in cosmopolitan (Newman, 2002). The amount G-LOC total incapacitation period stretch forths about 30 seconds, moreover has been reported to last as long as 3 minutes (Watson, 1990). Unfortunately, this does not unendingly happen prior to groundwork impact (Newman, 2002). Often hobby a G-LOC hap, a pilot will kick in no recollection of what happened (Watson, 1990). Short dreams are oft experienced by pilots during a G-LOC. It has been suggested that the purpose of these dreams is to pull out the pilot aware that a going of intelligence has occurred. When a G-LOC goes unnoticed by a pilot, their recognition of the importance of the misadventure as well as gaining a better catch of their G- valuation reserve is loss (Whinnery, n.d.). The G-LOC symptoms set forth thus far are all base on the assumption that the attack rate of G- forces is 2Gs per second or less. At these lower onslaught rates, the eyes are affected prior to the brain. When receptive to higher onset rates, the loss of blood flow to the upper body will be sudden and prompt. This causes twain the eyes and brain to serve with functioning at close to the same time, giving the pilot no warning of the impend loss of consciousness. The Euro virtuoso aircraft is capable of onset rates of 15Gs per second. These high onset rates send packing only be prevaild for a short amount of time. The brain publicly has a reserve supply of oxygen that it uses for do such as these, til now these supplies will only last about 3 ? 5 seconds. Once the oxygen is used up, G-LOC will occur (Newman, 2002). new-fangled research has withal suggested that some other effect of G- forces is a symptom known as closely loss of consciousness (A-LOC). During episodes of A-LOC, some impairment of the brain occurs scarcely the pilot remains technically conscious. Often, A-LOC will occur during a short duration of Gs that occurred as a result of a high onset rate. Symptoms of A-LOC lots include the loss of barbarism or short incapacitation (Newman, 2002). change magnitude speedup ToleranceBoth legions and civilian aircraft are capable of sustaining and providing G- onset rates that could lead to a G-LOC. Many discoveries and innovations flip been made that supporter pilots cope with these G- forces. In some applications, the consideration of aircraft design, employ equipment, and pilot physiology will dispense with a human to sustain G- forces well beyond the normal threshold (Whinnery, n.d.). recent technological advancements in aircraft control, specifically fly-by-wire rush controls, allow the aircraft to limit the amount of Gs sustained (Patten, 1991). It has withal been demonstrate that an aircraft?s seat bit has an impact over how many Gs a person crumb sustain. For example, the F-16?s seat is reclined at an careen of 30 degrees. This 30 degree pose position has been reported to add about 1Gs worth of additional resistance to the medium human body. A Soviet aircraft, the SU-25M, has a seating position that is reclined 35 degrees. A seat that is reclined to 80 degrees should allow a pilot to sustain 15Gs. However, this seating position would not be of practical use delinquent to the limited theatre of vision it would give the pilot (Watson, 1990). A pilot able to fly his aircraft in the inclined(predicate) position would be the closely in effect(p) arrangement in relation to sustaining high amounts of G- forces (Balldin, n.d.). The virtually common defense device used by forces pilots is the G-suit. A G-suit is fundamentally a pair of pants containing air bladders. The pilot wears these pants, typically over a standard relief valve suit, when he is go a high public presentation aircraft. A irrigate that emanates from the G-suit is plugged into a valve on the aircraft. During periods of increased Gs, the valve opens and fills the air bladder inside the G-suit with air. These bladders wait on to squeeze the legs and abdomen of the pilot, parcel to keep on blood in the upper portion of the body (Watson, 1990). The G-suit understructure help to add 1 ? 2G levels of protection to the human body (Patten, 1991). just about modern G-suit systems also include a storm animated option that forces air into the pilot?s lungs. It is suggested that this coerce live capability helps to provide increased G- protection (Whinnery, n.d.). It has also been launch that breathing 100% oxygen during periods of high Gs fundament help to increase G- tolerance (Watson, 1990). A pilot?s level of physiological fitness, health and physical attributes also keep up a direct correlation to the number of Gs he or she is able to sustain. Flying with a unwellness can greatly slim the bodies? ability to tolerate G- forces. non only does an complaint typically reduce your strength, fevers can often dilate blood vessels which will allow an increased effect of blood pooling under Gs. drying up also has ban cause on G- tolerance. When dried-out, the body possesses a smaller volume of blood. This allows a greater amount of it to be taken to your lower extremities and amodal value from the brain (Newman, 2002). beingness dehydrated is often a direct result from outgo of inebriant or caffeine (Harradine, 1999). It has been rig that alcoholic drink can reduce a pilots G- tolerance by up to 0.5 Gs. The typical holdover symptoms of a hangover from alcohol including headache, fatigue and digestion problems can last up to 48 hours. This time period typically exceeds the normal legislation regarding how long a pilot moldiness wait before prompt after consuming alcohol (Newman, 1999). The distance of time one can sustain high Gs can be increased by up to 53% by participating in an self-assertive physical admit platform (Watson, 1990). To daylight?s multitude pilots are usually requisite to follow strict solve weapons platforms. These programs usually concentre mainly on strength pedagogy, and rely moderately on aerophilous reproduction. This is because of the finding that raft who posses a high level of aerobic fitness actually are less all-encompassing to G- forces. anaerobiotic tuition such as lifting weights is more facilitative to pilots. This training not only helps prevent fatigue but also improves their anti-G strain maneuver (AGSM) (Newman, 2002). in that respect are a a few(prenominal) other factors that can help a pilot tolerate Gs better. Shorter pilots remove been establish to have an increased tolerance to Gs compared to taller pilots. Also, people with higher blood obligate levels can sustain Gs better than those with lower blood pressure levels (Whinnery, n.d.). It is important for a pilot to maintain his lifestyle in a personal manner that does not place him or her in danger of being any more unresistant to G-LOC. The most effective way a pilot can sustain Gs while flying is through the use of the AGSM. The tolerance to acceleration can be increased using this maneuver by as much as 4 Gs (Balldin, n.d.). thither are multiple AGSM?s, the most common being the Valsalva, M-1 and L-1 methods (Watson, 1990). An AGSM consists of ii basic steps. The first is the abridgement of muscles in the abdomen and legs. The second is a specific breathing technique (Balldin, n.d.). The breathing practice can be expound as taking a deep breath and billing it for tether seconds. Upon expiration of the three seconds the air should be expelled violently and a quick heft up or inhalation should be made. This should be repeated until the level of Gs is reduced. An AGSM essentially acts to increase the pressure inside the lungs which in turn increases blood pressure on the inlet side of the heart (Patten, 1991). With the capability to increase G- tolerance by up to 4 Gs in some situations, the AGSM is a highly important part in the reduction of G-LOC in pilots. some other way of parcel pilots cope with Gs is to ensure that they remain current in draw them. A persons G- tolerance will diminish with the amount of time they spend away from flying aircraft and experiencing Gs. For this reason, it is suggested that pilots who haven?t flown for an all-inclusive period of time ease into pulling Gs again (Watson, 1990). kind of possibly the most important part of reducing loss of aircraft and human life due to G-LOC is the training that a pilot recovers on the risks of G- forces. Training of air force pilots typically begins in the classroom. commonly a safety valve surgeon or physiological training officer will give a circumstantial dun about the risks of G- forces and how to prevent them. The AGSM is also first taught in a classroom setting. The AGSM is heavily express since it is a cheap, quick and booming way to significantly increase G- tolerance. Following classroom training, students are moved into the separator. Here they are exposed to various(a) levels of G- forces in parliamentary law to get acclimated to the hotshot and become familiar with their immanent tolerance. After this, they are support to practice and perfect their AGSM in the centrifuge as well. Since pilots are often looking potty them while dog-fighting, they are also given the opportunity to experience Gs and practice the AGSM while in the ?check six? position. A pilot graduates from this training upon successful materialisation of the AGSM and by demo the capability to withstand 8 ? 9 Gs. The Soviet stress Force has claimed to have neer lost a pilot due to G-LOC. According to major General Ponomarenko, the commander of the USSR port Force Institute of Aerospace Medicine, this has a high relation to the fact that Russian pilots participate in a recurring G-currency training class (Patten, 1991). No circumstantial information could be obtained as to the recurring training US descent Force pilots receive in regard to G- cognisance and prevention, if any at all. An Overview of Recent G-LOC Related StudiesMany studies have been of late conducted to help extrapolate the effects of Gs on humans. These studies have instantaneously led to many arouse discoveries and an increased knowledge in the realm of G-LOC. An example of a recent husking that occurred in 2005 was that caffeine can help to increase G- tolerance. This study was carried out using Rhesus monkeys that were injected with a caffeine solvent and make haste using a centrifuge (Bonneau, 2005).

An analysis was performed in 2008 using 10 subjects who had never experienced G-LOC. Multiple uses of a centrifuge allowed the researchers to call for information from 35 instances of G-LOC that had occurred from the 10 subjects. From this data, they were able to stash away the mean times it took for the subjects to experience the various stages of G-LOC. They comprise that the average G level ask to accomplish G-LOC was 6.73 seconds. They also determine that the mean absolute incapacitation period was 13.9 seconds, with a mean relative incapacitation period of 15.1 seconds (Reis, 2008). As mentioned earlier, A-LOC is a somewhat new discovery and phenomena. A test conducted on nine individuals using a centrifuge in pop brought them to the threshold of unconsciousness. After this A-LOC incident, the subjects incurred a loss of memory 35% of the time. They were able to recall the last number that they were asked to remember 35 out of 66 times. Another disturbing effect of A-LOC was the temporary inability for subjects to speak after G exposure 12% of the time (Cammarota, 2003). This study helped researchers to understand that even undergoing A-LOC can dramatic event quite a ban role in the operation of an aircraft. A survey conducted with 65 members of the Royal Australian glow Force (RAAF) arrange that 98% had experienced a visual or cognitive disorder, which includes G-LOC and A-LOC, during their career. 20 nine per centum reported a complete amnesia; the most common experience was grey out. Thirty quaternion pilots admitted to have experienced an episode of A-LOC in which the most common symptom was an abnormal sensation in the limbs. Nine per centum of the pilots reported have experienced a complete G-LOC event. The RAAF conducts mending G- education classes but does not use centrifuge training (Newman, 2005). There have been 29 aircraft lost in the air force due to G related mishaps between 1982 and 2002. Of these 29 aircraft losses, a 79% fatality rate is discover. G- related mishaps in the airforce from 1998 to 2003 have remained at approximately 30.2 per year. all(prenominal) of these mishaps and incidents have occurred despite the high level of training airforce pilots receive. This training includes classroom lectures, centrifuge qualification, the protagonist aircrew learn test and strait-laced demonstration of the AGSM. A program that was conducted at Luke AFB Arizona assay to site high-risk F-16 pilots during their training phase and assist them in peak their G- tolerance and discipline levels. Pilots were place and admitted to the program based on previous scores they achieved relating to sustaining Gs. It was found that the results of this program were not statistically significant compared to individuals not admitted to the program (Galvagno, 2004). In 2004, a study was conducted using data compiled by the air force from 1982-2002. The authors of this research came to some interesting conclusions. First, it was found that over half of all G-LOC crashes occurred in the F-16 aircraft. Second, a conclusion was reached that ceremonious G- awareness training had a greater impact on reducing G-LOC crashes than the execution of a pressure breathing for Gs (PBG) system did (the PBG system was introduced into the F-16 in the early 1990?s and provided a incessant flow of air during periods of higher Gs). Lastly, a crash rate (stating Gs as the cause) of 12.8 mishaps per trillion flight hours occurred between 1982 and 1984. This rate was observed prior to the airforce implementing their G centrifuge training. After G centrifuge training was introduced, the rate fell to 2.3 (Binder, 2004). These facts are reformatory in recognizing the importance of training regarding G-LOC and G- awareness. Another study was performed that analyse the same data from the USAF during the years of 1982-2002. This research found that crash rates due to G-LOC were highest in single-seat fighter aircraft, and that a crash emanating from G-LOC has never occurred in an aircraft occupied by ii or more pilots. The authors also stated that in 1975, 75% of USAF sorties were conducted by two-crew aircraft. By 1982, single crew aircraft sorties exceeded 50%. Because of this, it was suggested that higher G-LOC crash rates are due to a decrease in the number of pilots operating the aircraft (Binder, 2004). A recent survey administered to 2,259 UK Royal Air Force pilots found that 20.1% had lost consciousness former(prenominal) during flight. This study center not only on aircraft fighter pilots, but also less high performance pilots including rotor craft (Ford, 2006). A case study conducted in 2005 found that since 1993, the F-16 has had a preponderantly increasing rate of G-LOC mishaps. This is clean unique considering that the other aircraft canvass (A-10 and F-15) have shown a lull decrease in mishaps forthwith related to G-LOC. Thirty one percent of all F-16 class-A mishaps (resulting in the loss of an aircraft or life, or over $1 trillion in damage) occurred from a direct result of a G-LOC. It was found that 72% of G-LOC mishaps during this time frame resulted from an improperly performed AGSM. On average, G-LOC occurred in the F-16 during the third engagement of the day (Gardner, 2005). ConclusionG- forces have been playing a negative effect on pilots since the early 1900?s. In the 1930?s, the human tolerance was identified to be approximately 4 Gs. Since then, many studies have been conducted concerning eliminating the risk of G- forces from high performance aircraft. The implementation of G- suits, the AGSM and various other methods for increasing the human G tolerance has allowed modern aircraft and their pilots too consistently be exposed to 9+ Gs. in spite of this, G-LOC still plagues the pilot participation and poses a serious risk. change magnitude research, training and education are still ongoing in hopes of removing the menacing possibility of G-LOC all together. REFERENCESBalldin, I. (n.d.) speedup Effects on Fighter Pilots. Retrieved October 2, 2008, from The Borden Institute fight rogue: hypertext transfer communications protocol://www.bordeninstitute.army.mil/published_volumes/harshEnv2/HE2ch33.pdfBinder, H., Copley, B., Davenport, C., Grayson, K., Kraft, N., & Lyons, T. (2004, February). Preventing g-induced loss of consciousness: 20 years of operative experience. air power, leisure shell and environmental Medicine, 75(2), 150-153. Retrieved October 2, 2008, from IngentaConnect Database. 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Retrieved October 2, 2008, from Aerospace aesculapian Home Page Web site: http://aeromedical.org/Articles/g-loc.htmlWhinnery, J. (n.d.). Sustained Acceleration Exposure. Retrieved October 2, 2008, from http://www.faa.gov/education_research/Wolverton, M. (2007). The G Machine. Retrieved October 2, 2008, from Air and Space Magazine Website: http://www.airspacemag.com/history-of-flight/the_g_machine.html If you want to get a full essay, order it on our website: Ordercustompaper.com

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