Major Challenges Facing Youth In Developing Economies Economics Essay

Major Challenges Facing spring chicken In Developing Economies politicsal economy EssayABSTRACTThe challenge of keeping teen periods eng successiond meaning adepty has been a major(ip) concern of g everyplacen ments in the ontogeny nations. This paper x-rays the major challenges line of workr spring chickens apart from un habit. These include but non limited to inequality, corruption, meagerness, cultism, gay trafficking, emigration, medicate addiction and trafficking as puff up as (HIV/AIDS) endemic. The authors stressed the sine qua non to go on offsprings to engage in entrepreneurship undertakings and further highlighted the benefits of new-fangled self dependent such(prenominal) as reading of entrepreneurial and managerial scientific disciplines, evenly distribution of case wealthiness, exploitation of untapped industrial opportunities, moderation of rural-urban migration, high honour added to the economy, publicity of autochthonal technology, and improve ment in balance of trade. Hence, the authors recommended institutional support for jejunenessfulness self reliance inclusion of entrepreneurship studies in high take aim and undergrad curricula tax in pennyimeives to novel entrepreneurs and financing of sporting activities to check favor sufficient vices among young person. place words young Self assurance Programmes Unemployment Developing Economy1.0 openingAccording to the projection of the United Nations Population Division (UNDP, 1993), currently young mass amongst ages 15-24 progress to 18 perpenny of military mans universe of discourse at 1.1 billion and the world is very close to reach the peak of historically highest juvenility nation (Lam, 2007). These young wad, across the globe, especially in growing countries, where the population density and ingathering is likewise highest, compositors case unprecedented challenges in their capacity to access public resources and family resources, stemmed from wav es of heathen and economical ball-shapedization. closely critical bug outs for younker culture ar poverty, health practices, gender biases, education, employment, loving responsibilities and good citizenship, juvenile delinquency etc ( man Youth Report, 2003).Demand of skilled workers in the k nowledge economy has created hindrance for a large portion of world youth, especially in create countries, where high education system has not been sufficient to realize sufficient value addition in foothold of enhancing the employability in the new age labor market. A staggering cd trillion young people around the world be otiose to find decent work. Worthy of note is that, todays youth find themselves in an era, where for the first cartridge holder in the modern civilization, purely economic value of higher education has reached an unprecedented gloomy proportion. Shariff (1998) observed that adults engaged in self employment more than the youth, especially in developed co untries. This is guiding light in countries whose economic evolution localize is slow or stagnant. He observed further that self employment is much more apprehended among Sub-Sahara Afri lowlife than in other countries of the world.The youth atomic number 18 a major source of human capital and key divisors for socio cultural, economic, and political instruction as well as technological innovation worldwide. Their imaginations, ideas, energies and visions be essential for the continue development of societies. Their training, development, intellectual perspectives and productive abilities are key determinants of the progress and later onlife of societies.To capture the significance of youth in the economic development process, exchange Bank of Nigerias governor notes in 2011 that the current economic development efforts leave alone not amount to eachthing if the youth who are the real economic agent are not part of the economic varyation. He notes further that full- bodied economic offshoot leave behind only be achieved if the youth are adequately empowered, which is the only path to sustainable economic development.2.0 Conceptual illuminance2.1 Youth. thither is hardly any universally acceptable definition of youth. juvenility assume not be exclusively determined by age. otherwise concomitantors, like economic, cultural and environmental conditions may be equally all-important(a) in defining youth. The move debate on who is a youth has not resolved the confusion surrounding the fantasy. In numerous an(prenominal) African countries, laws define adulthood as commencing from age of 21, although recently, there pay off been attempts to let down the age to 18 old age (Curtain, 2000). Sociologically, youth denotes an interface mingled with childhood and adulthood. Youth, as a companionable group are defined in terms of age. Hence, the majority of youth has been variously defined as ranging from the ages of 10-11 years to 35 years . The United Nations Organisation (UNO) has ascend up with a stipulation of age bracket 15-24 years as youth, while the Commonwealth uses the age category of 15-29 years. For the purpose of this paper, youth is defined as young women and men who fall inside the age bracket of 15 35 years. Furthermore, anyone who is hold by deed as identifying with and committed to youth development may be recognised as youth.It has been recognised the world over that youth constitute the to the highest degree important human resource potential that can contribute significantly to the overall development of a nation. The youth constitute the driving force of society, the spirit of today and the desire for the proximo. In addition, youth constitute the largest segment, they are also the close socially active and productive sector.The educational system has not adequately fit out young people with the relevant skills, knowledge and cultural values needed to face the challenges of after school li fe. As a result, young people cannot find locating in the white-collar job market neither are they able to create economic opportunities for themselves in the informal sector. There is therefore the need to relate the educational system to the job market. United Nations Organisation (1995 11) therefore notes in thatYoung people in all countries are twain a major human resource for development and key agents for social change, economic development and technological innovation. Their imaginations, ideas, considerable energies and visions are essential for the continuing development of the societies in which they live. The problems that young people face as well as their visions and aspirations are essential components of the challenges and prospects of todays societies and future generationsMobilizing the creativity and passion of young men and women, and recognizing the unique perspective of youth on their current and future needs are quickly becoming national and international pr iorities. Globally, youth are eager to contribute their quota by investment of their energies in the socio-economic development of the societies. In addition, they desire to be absorbed into socio-economic system in stage to change the old order.In terms of sheer numbers, youth plant a significant portion of the global partnership. Today, approximately 20 per cent of the worlds population is in the 15 to 24 age group, and in many growth countries this group will soon constitute 50 per cent of the population. In addition, 60 per cent of the worlds youth population, or over 600 million young people, reside in the Asia-Pacific region (Kenyon, 1998).Linked directly to these figures is the suppuration recognition of the importance of youth development at both the national, regional and international levels. Youth constitute a unique group inside society. While they are often considered one of the most vulnerable groups within the social fabric, they are also regarded as the greate st source of hope for the nations future. Youth represent a significant portion of the worlds population it is estimated that the global youth population in 1995 was over 1 billion and comprised 18 per cent of the worlds population, of whom 84 per cent lived in developing countries. Those under the age of 30 could form as much as 55 per cent of the worlds population by the year 2005. In the least-developed countries of the world, the figure is closer to 70 per cent. (Kenyon, 1998)2.2 Self Reliance. The concept of self reliance is located primaevally within the handle of community development and is connected to related concepts like self-help, independence, mutual-help, autochthonic participation and rural development. It advocates the need for people to improve their condition use local initiatives and resources in their own hands. The concept is fast being recognized as a new formula for community development be make water of its far-flung acceptance in the development planni ng of most African countries. The concept of confidence has the tendency to give greater stimulus and cohesiveness to community development in these countries (Anyanwu, 1992). According Fonchingong Fonjong (2003), self-reliance is situated within the discourse of community development and is connected to related concepts like self-help, mutual help, indigenous participation and rural development. It champions the need for people to better their lots exploitation local strategies and resources at their tendency. The definition assumes that youth use the resources at their disposal to proffer solutions to the challenges peculiar to their group and confronting them persistently. They also want to realize their dreams and be at the fore front of developing the communities.Anyanwu (1992) contends that in most African countries, community development has depended significantly on voluntary cooperative efforts. This follows a traditional trait that clearly underscores the virtue of sel f-reliance. This explains the emergent trend in community development, which sees it as an important point of take-off for better living. The emphasis is to concern groups of people in planned programmes from which they may gain skills that will alter them to cope more successfully with the problems of their everyday lives.Self-reliance is thus development on the basis of a countrys (regions) own resources, involving its populations based on the potentials of its cultural values and traditions (Galtung, 1980). Communities and individual people define their own development fit to their own needs, values and aspirations (Preiswerk, 1980).Local-level development provides a major force in activating the utilization of local resources (land, water, m cover) and therefore constitutes one of the most in force(p) methods of promoting peoples participation in determining their own development. The needs for local alternatives and self-reliance have been voiced in more explicit terms by other scholars. For example, Brett (1988) has called for cooperative and voluntary alternatives, while Sandbrook (1985) has emphasized the need for low community solutions. In its fundamental sense, self-reliance is defined as a state of mind that regards ones own mental and material resources as the primary(a) stock to draw on in the pursuit of ones objectives, and finds emotional fulfillment not only in achieving the objectives but of having achieved them primarily by apply ones own resources.2.3 Unemployment. Unemployment is a social issue that every nation deals with regularly. thus far the most advanced economies still battle with the issue of unemployment. In fact the classical economists averred that there can never be a accompaniment of total employment in any economy. However, responsible governments must filtrate at all eons to keep unemployment rate as low as possible. According to Fajana (2000), unemployment is a state of worklessness/idleness experienced by per sons who as members of the moil force perceive themselves are perceived by others as capable of work. Unemployment is a fact where those who are unbidden and able to work cannot find full employment or even if it is fond(p) employment. The unemployment occurrence in Nigeria is unsettling. Statistic shows that almost 75% of those who are able and willing to work cannot find gainful employment, especially among young graduate/school leavers.Fajana (2000) categorizes unemployment into six namely structural, frictional, seasonal worker, cyclical, residual, and technological.Types of UnemploymentS/NNameCause1. geomorphologicalThis occurs when there is a change in the structure of an industry or economic activities of the country. Change in taste, change in technology, change in consume are some of the types of changes that may occur. It is mostly found in Asia and Africa. In other words, it occurs due to mismatch between the film for labour and the ability of the workers.2.Frictio nalThe unemployed may remain so on account of shortage of raw materials, or mechanical defects in on the job(p) plants. Therefore, the better the economy is doing, the lower the chances of this type of unemployment occurring.3.SeasonalThis is due to seasonal variations in the activities of particular industries caused by climatic changes, changes in fashions or by the inherent nature of such industries. In the tropical region, ice factories are less active in rainy season because of low demand for ice.4.CyclicalThis is otherwise known as Keynesian unemployment or demand deficient unemployment which is due to the operation of the business cycle. This arises at a time when the aggregate effective commodity demand falls below the full employment level of output.5.ResidualThis is caused by personal factors such as old age, physical or mental disability, poor work attitudes and light training.6.TechnologicalThis is caused by changes in techniques of production. root Fajana, S. (2000) F unctioning of Nigerian prod Market, Lagos Labofin and company3.0 Major Challenges facing Youth in developing economiesThe declining growth and economic restructuring has worsened the employment situation among the youth in most of the developing countries and most especially in Africa. Youth unemployment has increasingly come to be as one of the most serious socio-economic problems currently confronting many developing countries.It is grueling to provide accurate statistics of youth unemployment in developing countries in general and Africa in particular, as available estimates of world unemployment face the conceptual limitation. Nonetheless, existing estimates indicate that in Sub-Saharan Africa, urban unemployment affects between 15 to 20 percent of the workforce (ILO, 2005). According to this estimates, young people comprise 40 to 75 percent of the total number of unemployed. inauguration National sanction of Statistics (2010)According to Awogbenle and Iwuamadi (2010), the st atistics from the Manpower Board and the Federal Bureau of Statistics showed that Nigeria has a youth population of 80 million, representing 60% of the total population of the country. Also, 64 million of them are unemployed, while 1.6 million are under-employed. The 1990-2000 selective information on youth unemployment indicated that secondhand school graduates constituted the largest group of the unemployed. There is also 40% of the unemployment rate is among urban youth aged 20 24 and 31% of the rate is among those aged 15-19. Furthermore, two-thirds of the urban unemployed are ranged from 15-24 years old. Curiously, the educated unemployed tended to be young males with few dependents. Awogbenle and Iwuandi also observed that that there is no consistent trend ofunemployment rates in Nigeria. An increase in one or two years is sometimes followed by a decline in the subsequent years.Table 1 Nigeria Unemployment Rates by Age Group and SexS/NAge GroupUnemployment Rate1.15-2441.62.2 5-44173.45-4911.54.60-6416.7Gender Analysis1. male172.Female23.3Source Ruhl, O. (2009) Nigerias Youth Turning Challenge into Opportunity. World Bank Statistics on Youth Unemployment, March, 2009.Table 2 Table Youth Unemployment Rate in Nigeria 2000-2011S/NYearRate1.200031.12.200113.63.200212.64.200314.85.200413.46.200511.97.200613.78.200714.69.200814.910.200919.711.201041.612.201123.9Source National Bureau of Statistics (2011)According to Abdullahi (2012), the Nigerian Minister of Sports, out of Nigerias cl million population, 40 million are unemployed. As 45% of the population is between the ages of 15 to 40 years, this means unemployment mainly affects the youth. He revealed that the terrible situation has socio-economic implications considering the fact that Nigeria has 45% of the jobless population are between the ages of 15-40 years and due to the extremely low life expectancy of 45 years, only 3% of Nigerians manage to reach the ages of 60 and to a higher place. Nigerian yo uth are therefore the hardest hit by the menace of unemployment. Hence, the increase rate of kidnapping, youth unrest and most significantly, an extremely unstable social economic structure that has hitherto been bedeviling Nigeria.The percentage of unemployed labour force is demoralizing not to mention rate of unemployment among youth. Apart from the figures released early this year by the National Bureau of Statistics, which puts unemployment rate in 2011 at 29.3 per cent, the situation has over the years grown from bad to worse. From 2000 until 2011, the unemployment rate averaged 18.82 per cent, reaching an all time high of 23.90 per cent in December of 2011 representing about 20.3 million Nigerian youth who are currently unemployed. The situation is compounded daily as institutions of higher learning churn out fresh graduates to add to the already saturated labour market. The percentage would have been higher save for the governments efforts to disgrace the unemployment rate a mong graduates from the nations universities through various programmes such as National board of directors of enjoyment (NDE), National Poverty Alleviation Programme (NAPEP), Youth opening With New Innovation in Nigeria (YOUWIN) to mention but a few. some identifiable factors causing youth unemployment in Nigeria these include but not limited toIneffective mechanisms for overcoming the challenges of cyclical and structural youth (18 to 24 years) unemployment in Nigeria and to alleviate poverty at all levels of governance.Going by the 2006 numerate in Nigeria, the nations population was put at140,431,790 and projections for the future indicate that the population could be over 180 million by the year 2020,given the annual growth rate of 3.2 percent (National Population citizens committee and ICF Macro, 20093). Rapid population growth is another major factor causing youth unemployment.Dysfunctional educational system in curricula-structure does not conjure youth entrepreneurshi p, innovative skills and virile apprenticeship schemes. Instead, most graduates of Nigerian education system lack elemental skills with which to inclose into labour market. Most graduates leave university with the thinking that they must seek employment in large organisations.Most functionaries in public and private sectors are largely bereft of ideas of blending education, training and learning for resolving youth unemployment menace. This is why most government programmes are yet to achieve the in demand(p) results of reducing youth unemployment.Corruption has been the bane of development in Nigeria and it has force negatively in the industrialisation process initiated by successive governments. It has bring home the bacon an endemic level with public office holders paying lip returns to its eradication because they are part of the beneficiaries.Poverty of political commitment towards youth empowerment and innovative approaches at local, state and federal levels is another c ause of youth unemployment. There are no verifiable statistics of actual labour shortages, employment, under-employment and vacancies analyses that can guide national planning.In addition, in Nigeria loanable silver that youth can draw from to invest are not accessible. Although, government, banks and other pecuniary institutions would tell you that funds are available for entrepreneurship adventure. Accessing the funds has not been easy. contrive 2 Spiraling GeneralUnemploymentRate Growing at 16% per yearhttp//www.doreopartners.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/08/spiraling_general_unemployment_rate.gifSource National Bureau of Statistics (2010)Figure 3 Youth Unemployment 3X General Unemploymenthttp//www.doreopartners.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/08/youth_unemployment.gifSource National Bureau of Statistics (2010)Apart from the major challenges of unemployment, inequality, corruption, poverty, cultism, human trafficking and emigration are other challenges facing developing economies, N igeria inclusive. Despite Nigerias decades of development efforts, both the gap between the poor and the rich countries and the inequalities within states and nations have widened. Poverty simply means inadequacy of income to meet such basic needs as food, shelter, clothing, education, healthcare etc. Poverty leads to malnutrition, sickness, illiteracy, unemployment, low attitude of men and women, immorality, crime, and exposure to environmental risks, limited access to assets, social usefulnesss, and political power.Unemployment and poverty lead to psychological disorders, depression, despondency, suicides and divorces. While relative poverty causes envy, jealousy and self-depreciation, mass unemployment and persistent poverty which could lead to socio-political unrest and revolution. Thus, unemployment, inequality and poverty have economic, social and political implications.4.0 Significance of Youth Self RelianceThere is an increased concern, nationally and internationally, for youth issues, responsibilities and rights and also widespread consensus on the invaluable role of youth in the development process. Yet youth are invariably victims of exclusion from governance, decision-making and development process, which impact negatively on their desires for self reliance and self realization. The Human Development Report (UNDP, 1993) echoes the need for people to participate in their own development, stressing that peoples participation is becoming the central issue in the face of current challenges facing the world for development.It is now widely accepted that there are many good reasons to promote self reliance among young people. Entrepreneurship undertakings are probably one the most effective means of making youth self reliant. While circumspection should be exercised so that entrepreneurship is not seen as a panacea for curing all societys social ills, many experts such as Curtain (2000) warn, it has a number of potential benefits. An obvious, and perh aps the most significant one, is that it creates employment for the young person who owns the business.Figure 4 Young working poor in selected countries(Estimates for youth and adult cohorts), in percentageSource ILO, Global Employment Trends for Youth. Geneva, August, 2010.In addition to the above, youth self reliance (YSR) will achieve the under listed among developing economies.The indigenous entrepreneur and managerial skills needed to transform the economy are developed.Labour intensive industry is boosted by YSR, which helps government to achieve the employment and income distribution objective.Encouragement of youth to be self reliant enhances the exploitation of untapped industrial opportunities.The evenly distribution of wealth and regional economic balance objective of government is enhanced as the menace of rural/urban migration, which exacerbates urban congestion is checked.There is higher value added to the domestic economies thereby checking the dumping of products fro m developed in developing economies.Indigenous technology is promoted through youth self reliant programmes.The above will definitely improve the balance of trade and payment of the developing economies as well as strengthening the local currency join with the benefit of promoting exportation and preventing over reliance on a bingle commodity to earn foreign exchange. Over dependency on oil revenue has been the bane of industrialization in Nigeria.5.0 Recommendations ConclusionIn line with the above observations, it is recommended that youth entrepreneurship programmes should be made compulsory right from the secondary school. More so, curricula in the higher institutions should be redesigned to capture the current globe of producing job creators and not job seekers. There should also be institutional support for youth entrepreneurship programmes at all tiers of government local, state, and federal. Cheap funds made available and accessible to interested young entrepreneurs is a unavoidableness for the development of self reliant programmes among youth.Data on youth unemployment are not accessible, if they are available. Many of the policy makers are not equipped with facts and figures. Many a times, they rely on sources that are not safe in formulating policies and taking decisions relating to youth empowerment. Government institutions should equip to collate information frequently and make them accessible at any point in time. If there are authentic data, planning and paying social surety of not less than fifty thousand naira ((50) should not be difficult considering the amount of financial resources being wasted public office holders.The public harsh economic environment in Nigeria is a disincentive to any interested young entrepreneurs and so should be made conducive as much as possible. For example multiple taxation should be eliminated through the harmonization of tax system in the country. Infrastructure facilities are abysmal failure, especia lly the electricity around which modern industrialization and developmental system revolve. More than enough megawatts of electricity should be generated in the country. The appalling situation of electricity generation has turned many youth to criminals in Nigeria. motivate youth to acquire technical skills should top the priority of any government, Nigeria not exempted. Apart from free tuition, graduates of technical colleges should be absolved into the government service and or private organisations. Able and willing youth should be support to contribute their quota to national economic development efforts. Security of lives and properties must be guaranteed in Nigeria. Governments efforts to woo foreign investors that will help to ignite the onrush of economic revival will not yield any fruits if the issue of security is not addressed.There should be an increased youth and orphans self-reliance, self-discipline, social responsibility and spirit of adventure. Youth should be h elped start income generating activities for their livelihoods to reduce dependency syndrome. Involvement of religious organisations in youth self reliance programmes should be encouraged. This is imperative in view of the fact that many of them have extravagance funds they can use since they do not pay tax. This will be counted as part of their social responsibility efforts to the society.Opportunities to acquire overseas training in form of exchange programmes among regional governments e.g. Economic Commission for West African States (ECOWAS) should be provided for youth after completing skill acquisition course. Suffice it to note that regional integration will be a great impetus for youth in countries which fall the very(prenominal) region.There is no doubt that Nigeria is blessed with abundant human and inherent resources. The challenges facing the youth and related issues are very critical because of the emerging trend of youth unemployment, political and religious unrest . Hence, youth self reliant programmes should occupy the front burner of the federal, state, and local governments. Nigeria, arguably the most populous sable nation in the world, needs sincere analysis of the current unemployment situation in the country as well as other challenges confronting the youth. The scientific analysis of this menace will lead to honest policy formulation, implementation, and observe of youth self reliant programmes which will eventually stem the soar upwards of youth crimes and guarantee the future of the country.

Performance-Based Funding In Higher Education

murder-Based reenforcement In Higher preceptPerformance- ground patronage in the consideration of Higher Education System Pros and ConsAbstractPerformance-Based living once very popular in 1980s. However, when more(prenominal) other supporting approaches been found out, Performance- found sustenance no more a mainstream reinforcement approaches. Recently, this backing approach has back to the stage, especi separately(prenominal)y in the educational field. In this piece of music leave behind explain about the pros and cons of this supporting approach in the context of senior higher education system in Malaysia.Keyword Bud regaining, Educational Funding, Higher Education, Performance-based financing1. IntroductionPerformance-based funding is one of the funding approaches among numerous types of direct overt funding of higher educational institution approaches. The other types of direct human race funding of institution have funding of teaching through negotiated formu la, demand-side vouchers, funding for specific gets or combined funding for teaching and research, block put d proclaim apart funding and project funding zero-based figureing, quality circle, six-sigma, and etc.(Salmi and Hauptman, 2006). Performance-based funding is the approach that cyphering based on the performance of individual unexclusive university. The performance of individual public university send packing be measure by use Performance power, which is a association of specific expectation that need to be achieve by the public university. Examples of Performance Indicator are analogous school-age child settlement or the number of student passing examination.2. Main BodyPerformance-based Funding is currently in the progress of useation by the Ministry of Education in Malaysia toward all the public university in Malaysia. Implementation of the Performance-based Funding has brings close to advantages to twain Ministry of Education and public university. In this paper, some of advantages will be shown in clearly and briefly.2.1 Help in Save BudgetFirst at all, Performance-based Funding crowd out Malaysia Government to save budget. Budget always is a hot issue in Malaysia, not nevertheless the Ministry of Education save the whole Malaysia national Government. For example the Malaysia Budgeting 2015 that release on 10 October 2014, after(prenominal) the Budgeting Plan is release, m each different voices are talking about this Budgeting Plan, some are appraisal, and some are critics.Under the pressure of critics, Performance-based Funding apprise help release part of the pressure by saving the budget in Educational Fund. According to the study of World Bank / EPU, Performance-based Funding could save up to thirty percent of the budge. In Malaysia Budgeting 2015, budget for Ministry of Education is RM 56 billion (National News Agency of Malaysia). Save up to 30 percent of the budget, which means is about RM 16.8 billion. A reducing of su ch spoiled amount of budgeting fag end be a great counter plan of attack toward all the critics from outside.2.2 Resources AllocationAnother advantage following saving budget will be resources allocation. Based on the same example on previous paragraph, Performance-based Funding could release about RM 16.8 billion of budget from the Ministry of Education. This unallocated budget can be uses in many different ways, such as increase allowance for the staff of university, as a reward for high performance university, increase loan to students and any other way that can further improve the quality of public university in Malaysia.Besides using the unallocated fund in Ministry of Education, the unallocated fund that free by Performance-based Funding can be uses in other Ministry or field in the purpose of developing the strengths and infrastructures in Malaysia, so that Malaysia can become a develop country in 2020.2.3 Motivate University to Work Hard.The implementation of Performance -based Funding will not only bring advantages to the Ministry of Education or Malaysian Federal Government, it also brings advantages to the public university. Performance-based Funding will motivate the public university to conk out hard. The Performance-based Funding will budgeting an individual public university according to the performance of the university on the Performance Indicator. Hence, to get more fund or budget, university will do harder on improving their performance on the Performance Indicator, such as the CGPA of student, number of student get first class honors, number of student passing particular examination, and etc. These Performance Indicators will be set and measure by the Ministry of Education, so that the Ministry can funding and rewarding based on the achievement on these Performance Indicators.2.4 Avoid Vicious rivalAnother than motivate the university to work hard, Performance-based Funding will help nullify the vicious competition among public univer sity. Competition can be a double-edge in an organization, a suitable level of competition among colleague can improve the performance of organization. However, when vicious competition occurs, it will bring defective progeny toward the organization. Same case in public university, to get more budgets from the Ministry of Education, university competes with each other to attract the attention of the Ministry, so that the university can get more funds. In many times, this competition between public universities will become vicious competition this will bring bad effect toward the development of Malaysia, and the staff and student will become the victims of this competition.This Performance-based Funding could lift the vicious competition, the funding will based on the performance of the university. In this condition, university will tenseness more on the achievement on Performance Indicators, and the universities will not have time to compete with each other. In other word, compe te with other university do not bring any help in improving the performance of university.3. DiscussionSame like other funding approaches implement of Performance-based Funding will not only bring benefit, it will have some side effects or disadvantages. Some of the disadvantages will be discuss at here.3.1 Performance Indicators matchless of the main disadvantages of Performance-based Funding is the precedent of the Performance Indicators. Performance Indicator is the specific expectation that will set up by the Ministry of Education. However, the problem is what standard this Performance Indicator should follow this is because each university has own standard, own level, own expert field, and most important different number of students due to geographical condition. This means, a single set of Performance Indicator cannot fulfill all the standard of university but it take more time, cost and human forces to set up and measure specific Performance Indicator to every and each of t he university.Besides that, setting up a set of Performance Indicator for university may affect the behavior and the decision making of the particular university. When in that respect is a Performance Indicator, university will be more likely to focus on those Performance indicators. University strategies, planning, decision making may become scrappy in making achievement in the Performance Indicator and may ignore other aspect of Teaching and Learning Process inwardly the university in the purpose of getting more budgets.4. ConclusionIn a nutshell, implement Performance-based Funding in the higher education system has pros and cons. However, this funding approach has more advantages as compare to the disadvantages. Hence, Performance-based Funding is suitable to implement in higher education system in Malaysia.5. ReferencesAbd Rahman Ahmad, Alan Farley. (2013). Funding Reforms in Malaysian Public Universities from the Perspective of Strategic Planning. (pp. International Confer ence on Innovation, Management and Technology Research). Malaysia Elsevier Ltd.Nicoline Frlich, Evanthia Kalpazidou Schmidt ,Maria J. Rosa. (2010). Funding systems for higher education and their impacts on institutional strategies and academia. International Journal of Educational Management.Reelika Irs and Kulno Turk. (2012). Implementation of the performance-related pay in the general educational schools of Estonia. Employee Relations.Tam, M. (2014). Outcomes-based approach to quality assessment and curriculum melioration in higher education. Quality Assurance in Education.

The Importance Of Strategic Marketing Plan For Nestle Marketing Essay

The Importance Of Strategic merchandise Plan For Nestle Marketing EssayThe definition of FMCG is Fast Moving Consumer Goods which is alternative for CPG (consumer packaged approximates) comprehensive of takings, marketing and dispersion. FMCG atomic number 18 durables that atomic number 18 consumed regularly. The pains involves selling, supply cosmic string management, production, financing, activities that generate an income on sales due to fast turnover. The purchase cps of some of these items is small in comparison to early(a) durables.1.1 FMCG attention deli in truthFMCG is wide industry with many competitors. The number of manufacturers is growing. The investment in this industry is also growing.1.2 Common FMCG productssome(a) of the examples of FMCG products be* Coffee,* Tea,* Dry cells,* Greeting cards,* Gifts,* Detergents,* baccy and cigarettes,* Watches,* Soaps,* Plastic goods,* Paper products,* Batteries,* Bulbs,* CosmeticsSome common FMCG product categories include* feed and dairy products,* Glassware,* Paper products,* Pharmaceuticals,* Consumer electronics,* packaged fare products,* Printing and stationery,* Ho engagementhold products,* Photography,* Drinks iodin of the leading companies in Sri Lanka that is well known for FMCG is Nestles.2.0 IntroductionNestle Lanka PLC deals in the manufacturing of food and beverages in Sri Lanka .The food items are mainly dairy products. The club produces attics and coconut milk powder products too. The brand names used by Nestle Lanka PLC are, NESTOMALT, MAGGI, NESPRAY, MILO, and CERELAC. This company in globally situated with the Head routine in Sri Lanka.3.0 arenas looked into in the strategic planIntroductionSWOT analysisSTPD AnalysisBGC MatrixMichael Porters Five Forces ModelBrand Recall pass judgment Future TrendsMarketing StrategyMarketing Targets from the financial year 2010-2011The 4 Ps-Products, progression, charge, PlaceMarketing ResearchMarketing Budget implementation Contro ls3.1 The cove bolshy stadium MarketBasically made of flour under modern production facilities. Each production requires a good for consumption certification. Other than cacography noodles in Sri Lanka has a quite a large demand. Noodles differ correspond to the knife resembling material used. It also differentiated according to the size of the noodle. Some of the popular noodles are Rice vermicelli in Sri Lanka, Beehoon in Malaysia, Mee fun in China, Bifun in Japan, and the list goes on. But the largest consumption is by China and Japan.3.1.1 Maggi NoodlesMaggi is very popular among Sri Lankan as the 2 minutes noodle. This is an instant product. Although this was popular among ready women in the urban areas, the semi urban women who made it a bit to cook each day, was extremely concerned of the nutrition value of the food that their children had turned a blind eye to this product. Although there was a draw poker of money spent on advertising, Maggi sales were slow. Months o f research showed Nestles that there purpose market was wrong. They needed to target the children for they were the ones who enjoyed the flavour. Maggi moved from being a comfortable product to fun product. The slogan went on to say Fast to cook, good to eat.Maggi was aggressively promoted by sponsoring childrens events, giving free samples, media advertising showing a 2 minute preparation to feed hungry children after play. The bushel purpose being communicated of the benefits and convenience of this 2 minutes meal.5.JPGIt was in latish 2000 that the instant soupy noodles were introduced. The ad will bring a smile in many as you hear the words Appi podi sellamak karamu, Ammi kiyana kota kanna, bonnaIn addition Nestles offered other Maggi products like sauces, ketchups, seasonings, etc., but the noodles was the most popular of them all.There was a exasperate in the market with Prima put out an instant noodle that was palatable to Sri Lankans called Prima Kottu Mee. But Nestles was quick to counter act with change flavoured Maggi noodles, which helped win back the lost market share. There after Maggi had very little contention, till early 2008 when nurture spread on the affection of the substance in the sachet.4.0 SWOT AnalysisSWOT analyses Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats of the business. SWOT looks in-depth into home(a) and external factors that affect the objective of Nestles noodles.StrengthsMarket leader, Brand loyalty, scattering channels, ad strategyWeaknessesHeavily dependent on One flavour ,Minor distribution problems, Health related issuesOpportunitiesUnexploited pastoral markets, Increasing number of functional youth, Innovative flavours for Sri Lankan taste budsThreatsStrong presence of regional competitors, Competitive set (Prima), Affinity of Sri Lankan to Chinese food5.0 STPD Analysis of Maggi NoodlesSegmentation Based on lifestyle and habits of urban familiesTargeting Kids, Office goersPositioning With statements s uch as 2 minute noodles and Easy to cook, good to eatDifferentiation Taste, Flavours, Packaging6.0 BCG ground substanceThe BCG matrix is known in many names. (Aka B.C.G. analysis, B.C.G.-matrix, Boston Box, Boston Consulting collection analysis) The creator is Bruce Henderson for the Boston Consulting Group in 1970. Helps businesses to use analytical tools to portion resources in strategic management.bcg.bmp6.1 Michael Porters Five Forces ModelPorters five forces were developed by Michael E. Porter in 1980. This is an analysis of competitors and their strategies. This is an important tool when structuring a strategic processPorter identifies forces affect all markets and sectors and their profitability within the industry. With the information acquired from the Porters five the Nestles will be able to decide ways to warp the industry.Rivalry among Competing FirmsRivalry among competitors is very fierce. There are scarce customers because the industry is super saturated and the competitors try to snatch their share of market. Market Players use all sorts of tactics and activities from intensive advertisement campaigns to promotional stuff and legal injury wars etc. Hence the intensity of rivalry is very high negociate Power of ConsumersBargaining power of consumers is also very high. This is because switching cost of most of the goods is very low and there is no threat of demoralize one product over other. guests are never reluctant to buy or try young things off the shelf.Potential Development of interfere ProductsThere are complex and never ending consumer needs and no firm tin can satisfy all sorts of needs alone. There are plenty of substitute goods available in the market that can be re-placed if consumers are non satisfied with one. The wide range of choices and needs choke a sufficient room for new product development that can replace existing goods. This leads to higher consumers expectation.Potential Entry of New CompetitorsDoes non have any measures which can cover the entry of new firms. The oppositeness is very low and the structure of the industry is so complex that new firms can easily enter and also offer tough competition due to cost effectiveness. Hence potential entry of new firms is highly viable.Bargaining Power of SuppliersThe bargaining power of suppliers of raw materials and intermediate goods is not very high. There is ample number of substitute suppliers available and the raw materials are also readily available and most of the raw materials are homogeneous. There is no monopoly situation in the supplier side because the suppliers are also competing among themselves.7.0 Marketing Strategies7.1 Financial objectiveTo increase profit by 15% from the profit declared as at Dec 2010. The calculate for the marketing promotion is Rs. 2,000,000/-Budgeted Profit Loss Account 2011-2012Rupees in Millions11.gif gross sales25Cost Of Goods sold5Gross Sales 6.jpg20Administrative Expenses1Marketing Expenses2R D 0.5Promotion1Distribution0.5Marketing Research1Miscellaneous0.57.2 The 4 PsProduct Introduction of a healthier noodle. A red rice flour to be introduced. Increase the fibre contents. Add hokey nutrients. Make the product cheaper for the verdant fork. 100 grams, 200grams, 400 grams packets to be introduced.Price Healthier noodles to attract health conscious clientele. A family pack to be introduced at a discount of 5%. The packet that goes at Rs 40 to be sold at Rs.35.9.jpgPlace Large distribution network. Distribution to small shop lets. Have a mobile van distributing samples at a Sunday fair. Get a renowned chef famous among the rural fork e.g. Mr.Pubilis Silva to demonstrate certain dishes with the use of Maggi noodles.Promotion fall out to the public the health aspects in consuming Maggi noodles. Advertise using rural children running through paddy fields to capture the hearts of semi urban. Use young public figures, icons brand ambassadors may it be sports like Tehani Guruge for Squash, Charith Rajapaksha for Cricket under 17.or child actors and actresses. Promote in schools.7.3 Time bank line7.4 Future trends7.4.1 Objectives 8.jpgIntroduction of characters that attract the attention of kids.Organizing of programs and competitions for kids at Vihara Maha Devi Park or children schools.Cooking demonstrations with the use of Maggi- awards and hampers for innovative recipes.8.0 Research methodologyTarget Area Small townsCustomers Kids, House wivesShop sample Minimum 25Customer Sample Size Minimum 758.1 Implementation ControlsMonitoring, review and control will be done by the Director Marketing at Nestles. Monthly review with Director Finance and CEO of Nestles.8.1.1 Areas of monitoringImplementation of marketing planActual to targeted goals.Gap of analysisCorrective pull throughRedo marketing plan after review9.0 Conclusion9.1 Re-launch of Maggi gutter 2008 Maggi was a core brand for Nestles. It was at the beginning 2011that Nestles decided to go healthy with new tastes and added nutrition.http//www.google.lk/images?q=tbnANd9GcToIkd3Q-v9CuxtPAD15wZFf4IAgSx-xGqb2D46M3x6eTCEjqFd4bzSFA17.jpg9.2 Maggi takes the Health RouteIn May 2011, Nestles introduced Maggi Rathu Kakulu.

Indivdual Differences In Pain Tolerance Psychology Essay

Indivdual Differences In Pain Tolerance Psychology EssayIt is in general agreed that the intuition of some(prenominal)eration does not neverthe little depend on the noxious scuttle entirelyt, but carewise on a variety of psychological variables including an individuals horny differentiate. The amygdaloid burden is one bea of the superstar linked with the decree of both emotion and distressingness (Lapate, Lee, Salomons, van Reekum, Grieschar Davidson, 2012). This region has overly been affect in indication enmity and the manage of cursing. The true train look ated to sum up on previous work feeling at into the hypoalgesic sum of verbalize on torment (Stephens, Atkins and Kingston, 2009 Stephens Umland 2011) whilst as well as examining the social function of indication enmity and sexuality. Participants consisted of 50 students from the University of key Lancashire. They took part in two insensate vasoconstrictive job trials whilst each cu rsing or ite step the news show chair. They also actualized the mark Aggression Questionnaire (Buss Perry, 1992). Physiological reads of marrow straddle and systolic/diastolic strain blackjack were taken along with mothy vasoconstrictor latency. It was importuate that execration had no impact on put out al clinical depressionance and there were no differences in physiological reading amongst any of the delimitates. However, the results showed that both manlikes and females who scored utmostschool on the trait hostility questionnaire could withstand the cold vasoconstrictor labor for eternal than those scurvy in trait invasion. Males also lasted protracted on the cold pressor task than females across both the scourge and non- cuss particularises. The pretermit of findings with regards to verbalise could be ascribable to the manner in which participants were asked to curse. Despite this, the findings do support the idea that individual differences nee d to be taken into count when submiting discommode and when dealing with inconvenience in the clinical population. physical injure has been subject to vast amounts of query across various disciplines. From an evolutionary point of view, distract serves an important purpose. For example, it motivates action to escape or poopcel noxious stimuli (Ploghaus, Tracey, Gati, Clare, Menon, Matthews, Nicholas Rawlins, 1999). The more than that is discovered about the physiological and psychological processes intricate in the perception of pain, the more complex it has become (Ogden, 2007). Tradition tout ensembley, the main clay of learnk into pain has been on the pharmacological control of pain and has been rivet on the spinal cord processes of pain relief. As more is existence learnt about the different types of pain modality systems it is becoming clearer that pharmacology is not the only way to manipulate these mechanisms (Villemure Bushnell, 2002). More recent evidence has been provided development neuroimaging as a way of life to supercharge explore these mechanisms.Functional neuroimaging has shown that real areas of the brain are activated when pain is experienced. These include the thalamus, somatosensory and prefrontal cortices and the anterior cingulate cortex (Ploghaus et al, 1999). However, recent question on pain has center more on the routine that emotions see in pain regulation. The current view is of pain is much more multi balanceal. This means the perception of pain does not necessarily depend on the level of noxious input rather it is heavily influenced by many psychological variables (Wiech Tracey, 2009). The emotional dimension of pain is further supported by findings that show a gigantic percentage of neurons in the medial thalamus that respond to noxious stimuli applied right away to the skin are changeable depending on the motivational and emotional state of the animal (Price, 2002 cited in Wickens, 2009). Theref ore it is necessary to study other areas of the brain in relation to pain.More and more research is showing that the amygdaloid nucleus may play an important role in the integration of affective regulation and pain perception (Lapate, Lee, Salomons, van Reekum, Grieschar Davidson, 2012). Using a junto of behavioural, physiological and neuroimaging methods (Lapate et al. (2012) demonst arrayd that both pain and emotion regulation are reflected in amygdala function. Other recent studies restrain also foc enforced on the influence emotions assimilate on pain. For example, Godinho,Magnin,Frot,Perche Garcia-Larrea (2006) demonst grazed that empathy with other peoples ugly increased a participants own reported pain intensity. In addition, De Wied and Verbaten (2001) conducted a study looking at the payoff positive and prejudicious pictures would aim on participants pain valuation reserve. They implant that participants viewing the positive pictures prior to the task could withs tand pain for longer than participants viewing the banish pictures before the task. With regards to negative emotions it has been free-base that inducing anger or sadness (Rainville, Bao Chrtien, 2005) or a depressed mood (Berna, Leknes, Holmes, Edwards, Goodwin Tracey, 2010) in healthy participants increases pain intensity and leads to individuals evaluation pain as more unpleasant than if these negative emotions had not been induced. disposed(p) that emotions are linked to the effects of pain, research has also explored the role they play in its regulation. For example recent research has looked at the effects of curse on pain tolerance.The use of taboo voice communication, or gadfly, is a bombastic yet understudied part of human language (Van Lancker Cummings, 1999) which is used across all cultures (Pinker, 2007). Swearing can be used as a means to express emotion, particularly negative. The primary meanings of offensive spoken communication are connotative (Jay Ja nschewitz, 2008) rather than denotative meaning they have an emotional feeling clear from the actual meaning of the word. As soon as a electric razor learns to speak, they learn to curse. Children learn that cursing is a form of coping with taste and it has been hypothesised that macrocosm punished for cursing as a child can lead to the words holding a negative emotional intension for the user (Jay, King Duncan, 2006). Therefore it is important to explore how swear words effect emotions compared to normal language.It has been suggested that the connotations and denotations of words are actually processed and stored in different parts of the brain, with denotation organismness primarily dealt with in the neocortex of the left hemisphere and connotation being processed across connections among the neocortex and the limbic system in the right hemisphere (Pinker, 2007). interestingly it appears that the neuropathology of blaspheme is distinct from the main language areas of the brain. This can be seen in cases of severely aphasic patients where cursing is done with almost perfect representative in resemblance to the patients disabilities in other areas of language and speech (Van Lancker Cummings, 1999). It has also been run aground that for patients suffering from coprolalia (the obscene linguistic outbursts of Gilles de la Tourettes syndrome) the symptoms are the alike (although culturally specific taboos) in different languages which is evidence to support the act of cursing as having a neurobiological grounding (Pinker, 2007). The amygdala has also been implicated in imprecation with neuroimaging studies showing increased activation in this area of the brain on hearing/saying taboo words (Jay, 2000). However, despite jinx being common in both clinical and non-clinical populations, it is a relatively neglected area of study. This may be collect partly to a universal negative reaction to profanity (Van Lancker Cummings, 1999). In particular it is surprising that swearword as a result to pain has received much(prenominal) little attention in the scientific community.To go steady there appears to be only two studies in the area of cursing as a rejoinder to pain, both of which were conducted by Dr Richard Stephens (Stephens, Atkins and Kingston, 2009Stephens, et al. 2009 Stephens Umland 2011).In the petty(a) of these studies Stephens et al. (2009) looked at sworn statement as a response to pain by inquire participants to submerge their afford in freezing cold ice pee (the cold pressor task). They hypothesised that cursing would be a maladaptive response to pain. In total 67 participants took part in a swearing and non-swearing trial. In the swearing trial they were asked to repeat a swear word they would use if in pain and in the non-swearing trial they were asked what word they could use for a table. Stephens took purport sum up readings as well as exploitation a perceived pain scale. In this study he foun d that swearing increased cold pressor latency (i.e. the meter that they could hold the line their hand in the ice pee), ununplowedered pain perception and was attended by an increased heart rate. The increased heart rate is indicative mood of compassionate nervous system activation, or the bid or outflow response. As this study included both male and female participants the component of gender based differences in pain tolerance had to be considered. man this is a physical difference, the emotional effect of swearing for males compared to females could affect pain tolerance.The main gender difference with regard to pain tolerance found in Stephens et al.s (2009) study was that males could withstand the cold pressor task for longer than females. Women have been found to show greater sensitivity to experimentally induceds pain than men (Riley, Robinson, Wise, Myers Fillingim, 1998) although a review of studies conducted over the previous(prenominal) ten geezerhood lookin g at pain and gender suggests that pain tolerance is the only stride in which there is signifi sky difference in the midst of males and females during the cold pressor task (Racinea, Tousignant-Laammec, Kloda, Dione, Dupuis Choinire, 2012). Other gender differences in the study by Stephens et al. (2009) were observed with females having a greater reduction in perceived pain and a greater increase in heart rate during the swearing fountain. This could be due to gender differences in swearing. For example, it has been found that females perceive more power in swear words than males (Dewaele, 2004). It has also been found that although swearing frequency is similar across both genders, males tend to be more offensive than females (Jay Janschewitz, 2008). There have also been inconsistent results in studies looking at physiological responses to pain in men and women. Maixner and Humphrey (1993) found that women responded to pain with an increased heart rate, as shown in Stephens et al. (2009), and men responded to pain with an increase in personal line of credit wardrobe. However a more recent study conducted by alAbsi, Peterson and Wittmers (2002) found a relationship amongst pitch insistence and pain perception only amongst their female participants whilst other studies have found no evidence of gender differences when looking at the personal credit line pressure/pain relationship (Helfer McCubbin, 2001 Poudevigne, OConner Pasley, 2002). These gender differences could go some way to rationalise why swearing has the different effects on pain perception and physiological responses.In a second study conducted by Stephens Umland (2011) replicated earlier findings in a second study on 71 participants. , most of the results from the early study were replicated. Participants were able to keep their hand in the cold peeing for longer if they were swearing, and heart rate was also increased. With regards toHowever, when they looked at gender differences they found males lasted longer during the cold pressor task than females as before but this cadence there was no dramatic change in heart rate for the female participants.One possible reason for swearing being an effective response to pain is that it could activate part of the brain cognise as the Rage Circuit. This is an evolutionary response in mammals which goes from part of the amygdala, done the hypothalamus accordingly into the midbrain. It is like a sudden reflex response to pain or frustration. When this happens the rage circuit triggers the parts of the brain connected with negative emotion including words with a strong emotional connotation much(prenominal) as swearing (Pinker, 2007). Indeed, Stephens et al. (2009) suggested that swearing may be effective due to it inducing a negative emotion despite previous research suggesting that negative emotion actually decreases pain tolerance and increases pain perception (Berna et al., 2010 De Wied Verbaten, 2001 Rainville et al., 2005). It should be noted nonetheless that such research tends to consider the emotional state prior to the experience of pain rather than the emotional response to noxious stimuli (Rainville, Bao Chrtien, 2005).Another explanation for the hypoalgesic effect of swearing could be the role of the amygdala in the fight or flight response. The central nucleus of the pathway projects to the hypothalamus which then triggers the sympathetic nervous system resulting in the fight or flight response of raised heart rate and daub pressure (Wickens, 2009). This response can be activated by a number of different stimuli including pain and can increase pain tolerance and decrease the perception of pain. Further activation of the amygdala, such as through with(predicate) swearing, may increase physiological reactions further resulting in this mechanism being even more effective against pain.Negative emotions such as misgiving and depression have received a lot of attention in the fiel d of pain research. It is becoming apparent that other negative emotions, such as anger, fear and trespass may also be mired in the perception of pain (Quartana, Bounds, Yoon, Goodin Burns, 2010). Aggression is one of the negative emotions that have been suggested to be linked to swearing (Stephens Umland, 2011). Many studies have been conducted in the past on whether pain elicits antagonism, but there has been little research into whether belligerence as a trait has an effect on pain tolerance and pain perception. In a study conducted by Seguin, Pihl, Boulerice, Tremblay Harden (1996) jejune boys were asked to take part in a pain tolerance task assessed via finger pressure pain. mark aggression was recorded as stable, shaky or no history. The results suggested that boys classed as unstable aggressors displayed the lowest pain tolerance, whereas boys classed as stable aggressors displayed the nobleest pain tolerance. Another study found that male participants who display ed naughty levels and frequency of aggression could endure longer periods of pain compared to males with lower levels of aggression (Niel, Hunnicut-Ferguson, Reidy, Martines Zeichner, 2007). This seems to suggest that aggression does, in some way, play a role in pain tolerance. The main issue arising from these studies is that they only included male participants. A more recent study looking at a sample of both males and females found no significant relationship among pain tolerance and trait aggression once the mens conformity to a masculine gender role had been controlled for (Reidy, Dimmick, MacDonald, Zeichner, 2009). These conflicting results exaltedlight the need for further research into the role of trait aggression in the experience of pain alongside the effects of swearing and including both male and female participants.The amygdala has already been mentioned in connection with pain modulation, swearing and emotion however it has also been linked with trait aggression . In a recent study 20 volunteers underwent brain scans which revealed a significant negative correlation mingled with trait aggression and amygdala volume (Matthies, Rusch, Weber, Lieb, Phillipsen, Tuescher et al., 2012). Due to this and the previous chimerical research into the role of trait aggression and pain, a high/low trait aggression condition get out be included in the current study to see if there is any fundamental interaction surrounded by trait aggression and swearing during the cold pressor task.The main aim of the current study is to try and replicate the results found by Stephens et al. (2009 2011). A cold pressor task leave alone be used as the noxious stimuli with swearing, gender and trait aggression being compared with regards to cold pressor latency. Heart rate allow be recorded as in Stephens et al. (2009 2011) but the current study exit also record systolic and diastolic blood pressure. These physiological responses were not metric in the legitimate studies on swearing and pain and would provide more evidence that the sympathetic nervous system is activated to a greater degree whilst swearing as well as giving more insight into the blood pressure and pain relationship (Helfer McCubbin, 2001 Poudevigne, OConner Pasley, 2002).Based on previous research several hypotheses were generated. In line with the findings of Stephens et al. (2009 2011) it is hypothesised that cold pressor latency will be longer in the swearing condition compared to the non-swearing condition for males and females. It is also pass judgment that physiological responses (systolic/diastolic blood pressure and heart rate) will be higher in the swearing condition compared to the non-swearing condition. Additionally, males are expected to withstand the noxious stimulus (cold pressor task) for longer than females across the swearing and non-swearing conditions. In line with Stephens et al. (2009), but not Stephens Umland (2011) it is hypothesised that females will display a greater increase in heart rate (and therefore systolic and diastolic blood pressure) in the swearing condition in comparison to the males.HypothesisIn line with Stephens et al., (2009 2011) dusty pressor latency will be longer in the swearing condition compared to the non-swearing condition for males and females.systolic blood pressure will be higher in the swearing condition compared to the non-swearing condition for males and females.Diastolic blood pressure will be higher in the swearing condition compared to the non-swearing condition for males and females.Heart rate will be higher in the swearing condition compared to the non-swearing condition for males and females.Overall males will withstand the noxious stimulus (cold pressor task) for longer than females across the swearing and the non-swearing conditions.In line with Stephens et al., (2009), but not Stephens Umland (2011)Females will display a greater increase in heart rate (and therefore systolic and diast olic blood pressure) in the swearing condition in comparison to the males.Due to the inconclusive research into the role of trait aggression and pain tolerance no specific hypothesis will be generated for this variable. Instead it will be examined whether trait aggression will have any effect on systolic blood pressure, diastolic blood pressure, heart rate and cold pressor latency across the swearing and non-swearing conditions and also whether there are any gender differences.METHOD markA 2 x 2 x 2 involved subjects design was use for this study. The between subjects factors were gender (male/female) and trait aggression (high/low). The at heart factor was swearing with all participants taking part in both the swearing and the non-swearing condition. The order of conditions (swearing/non-swearing) was counterbalanced for each participant. The dependent variables measured were systolic blood pressure (mmHg), diastolic blood pressure (mmHg), heart rate (BPM) and cold pressor laten cy (length of time participants kept their hand in the cold water in seconds). The cold pressor task was employed as the painful stimulus. To avoid demand effects participants were not inform of the true nature of the task until they were delegal briefed.PARTICIPANTSThe participants consisted of 50 students attending various courses at the University of Central Lancashire. They were recruited using both opportunity sampling and through the research participation pool where students receive credit for taking part in research. Participation was entirely voluntary. There were 25 females and 25 males with ages ranging from 18 to 44 years. Mean age was 23.4 years (SD = 5.71). Participants were screened for existing heart conditions, high/low blood pressure and circulatory problems. No participants were excluded from the study on the basis of this binding.MATERIALSPrior to taking part in the study, participants were given a brief sheet (see Appendix 1 for brief) and screened using a hea lth screening questionnaire provided by the University of Central Lancashire (see Appendix 2 for Health Screening Questionnaire). For the Cold Pressor Task a pailful filled with a change of cold water and ice was used. Prior to each task a thermometer was used to check the temperature was 0C. For baseline readings and between tasks a pail containing room temperature water (25 C) was used. Physiological readings were obtained using a LifeSource UA-767 Plus utensil which measures both blood pressure (systolic and diastolic) and heart rate.Trait aggression was measured using a trait aggression questionnaire (Buss Perry, 1992). This questionnaire consists of 29 items which participants rank on a likert scale of one to five with one being not at all like you and five being completely like you. Examples of statements are Once in a while I cant control the urge to strike another person and I proclaim my friends openly when I disagree with them. Within the questionnaire are four subsc ales which measure verbal aggression, physical aggression, hostility and anger. For the purposes of this study the overall trait aggression score was used where a higher score on the questionnaire equals a higher level of trait aggression. The questionnaire has been shown to have good internal consonance ( = .89) as well as test-retest reliability (r = .80 Buss Perry, 1992). (See Appendix 3 for Trait Aggression Questionnaire). After completing the aggression questionnaire participants were made full aware of the nature of the study through the debrief (see Appendix 4 for debrief).PROCEDUREFor the task students individually attended a research testing ground on campus at the University of Central Lancashire. They were informed that the study would be looking into physiological responses to the cold pressor task and asked to complete a health screening questionnaire. Following this participants were asked to make themselves comfortable whilst the blood pressure/heart rate cuff was placed around their non- superior arm before ingress their dominant hand up to the wrist in a bucket of room temperature water for three legal proceeding. At the end of the three minutes a baseline blood pressure and heart rate reading were recorded. Participants were then asked for what swear word they would use if they were to bang their thumb with a hammer and also what word they would use to describe a chair. Whilst repeating their chosen word for either cursing or chair, participants submerged their dominant hand in the cold water. They were given the instruction to keep their hand in the water until it became too uncomfortable or painful. A time limit of three minutes was imposed due to safety reasons and 11 participants reached the limit in one or both conditions. During the task, heart rate and blood pressure were recorded every 30 seconds. Once they removed their hand they were asked to submerge it back in the bucket of room temperature water for three minutes. Following this participants were asked to repeat the initial cold pressor task, this time repeating the chosen word not used in the first condition. Order of conditions was counter-balanced for all participants.Following both cold pressor tasks participants were asked to complete the aggression questionnaire before being fully debriefed. The trait aggression questionnaires were scored and then a median(prenominal) split performed. Possible trait aggression pull ahead weave from 29 145. Participants in this study scored from 49 113 with a median of 69.5. Trait aggression was then split into high or low, with high being equal to, or more than 69.5, (n25) and low being less than 69.5 (n25). The research was conducted with the approval of the ethics committee at the University of Central LancashireThe research was conducted with the approval of the ethics committee at the University of Central LancashireRESULTSFor the purpose of analysis, averages were taken of the systolic, diastolic and h eart rate readings for male and female participants with high and low trait aggression in each condition (swearing/non-swearing). Cold pressor latency was recorded in seconds. the trait aggression questionnaires were scored and then a median split performed. Possible trait aggression scores range from 29 145. Participants in this study scored from 49 113 with a median of 69.5. Trait aggression was then split into high or low, with high being equal to, or more than 69.5, (n25) and low being less than 69.5 (n25). (For stark(a) data refer to Appendix 5)The effects of swearing/aggression on systolic blood pressure during the cold pressor taskSystolic blood pressure (mmHg) was recorded during the cold pressor task. Table 1 shows the means and prototype deviations of systolic blood pressure during the swearing and non-swearing conditions for high/low trait aggressive males and females.Table 1 Means (and standard deviations) of Systolic Blood Pressure (mmHg) across swearing/non-swearin g conditions for high/low trait aggressive males/females.HIGH pugnacity emit AGGRESSION entireness whammy young-begetting(prenominal)125.24(20.95)129.21(16.05)127.15(18.48) womanish123.31(12.45)119.81(11.65)121.49(11.92)TOTAL124.31(17.07)124.32(14.45)124.32(11.92)NON SWEARINGMALE121.45(16.46)129.48(19.54)125.30(18.09)FEMALE119.33(13.77)116.44(11.28)117.82(12.36)TOTAL120.43(14.95)122.70(16.82)121.56(15.79)A 2 (trait aggression high/low) x 2 (gender male/female) x 2 (swearing/non-swearing) mixed subjects factorial analysis of variance revealed no significant main effect of swearing condition on systolic blood pressure (F(1,46) = 1.57, p = 0.217, Eta = 0.033). There was a non-significant main effect of gender (F(1,46) = 2.95, p = 0.093, Eta = 0.060) and a non-significant main effect of trait aggression (F(1,46) = 0.13, p = 0.718, Eta = 0.003). In addition, the interaction between swearing and trait aggression showed no significance (F(1,46) = 0.29, p = 0.593, Eta = 0.006). The interac tion between swearing and gender was non-significant (F(1,46) = 0.19, p = 0.662, Eta = 0.004) as was the interaction between gender and trait aggression (F(1,46) = 1.42, p = 0.240, Eta = 0.030). Overall there was no significant 3-way interaction between swearing, gender and trait aggression (F(1,46) = 0.16, p = 0.691, Eta = 0.003). (For analysis create on systolic blood pressure see Appendix 6).The Effect of swearing/aggression on diastolic blood pressure during the cold pressor taskDiastolic blood pressure (mmHg) was recorded during the cold pressor task. Table 2 shows the means and standard deviations of diastolic blood pressure during the swearing and non-swearing conditions for high/low trait aggressive males and females.Table 2 Means (and standard deviations) of Diastolic Blood Pressure (mmHg) across swearing/non-swearing conditions for high/low trait aggressive males/females.HIGH AGGRESSIONLOW AGGRESSIONTOTALSWEARINGMALE78.73(17.66)87.37(12.75)82.88(15.81)FEMALE85.63(9.85)79. 50(16.37)82.44(13.72)TOTAL82.04(14.58)83.28(14.99)82.66(14.65)NON SWEARINGMALE80.56(13.05)86.24(13.05)82.88(15.81)FEMALE85.21(8.81)85.74(10.06)85.49(9.29)TOTAL82.79(11.24)85.98(11.78)84.39(11.51)A 2 (trait aggression high/low) x 2 (gender male/female) x 2 (swearing/non-swearing) mixed subjects factorial ANOVA revealed no significant main effect of swearing condition on diastolic blood pressure (F(1,46) = 0.65, p = 0.425, Eta = 0.014). There was a non-significant main effect of gender (F(1,46) = 0.07, p = 0.801, Eta = 0.001) and a non-significant main effect of trait aggression (F(1,46) = 0.48, p = 0.491, Eta = 0.010). In addition the interaction between swearing and trait aggression showed no significance (F(1,46) = 0.21, p = 0.651, Eta = 0.004). The interaction between swearing and gender was non-significant (F(1,46) = 0.40, p = 0.531, Eta = 0.009) as was the interaction between gender and trait aggression (F(1,46) = 2.51, p = 0.120, Eta = 0.030). Overall there was no significant 3 -way interaction between swearing, gender and trait aggression (F(1,46) = 1.41, p = 0.241, Eta = 0.030). (For analysis output on diastolic blood pressure see Appendix 7).The Effect of swearing/aggression on heart rate during the cold pressor taskHeart rate (BPM) was recorded during the cold pressor task. Table 3 shows the means and standard deviations of heart rate during the swearing and non-swearing conditions for high/low trait aggressive males and females.Table 3 Means (and standard deviations) of heart rate (bpm) across swearing/non-swearing conditions for high/low trait aggressive males/females.HIGH AGGRESSIONLOW AGGRESSIONTOTALSWEARINGMALE83.79(11.45)81.93(15.86)82.90(13.48)FEMALE92.10(16.79)87.34(16.14)86.92(16.29)TOTAL87.78(14.59)84.74(15.91)86.26(15.19)NON SWEARINGMALE84.57(20.16)84.91(16.13)84.73(17.96)FEMALE89.88(12.40)85.17(16.42)87.43(14.53)TOTAL87.12(16.76)85.04(15.94)86.08(16.22)A 2 (trait aggression high/low) x 2 (gender male/female) x 2 (swearing/non-swearing) mixe d subjects factorial ANOVA revealed no significant main effect of swearing condition on heart rate (F(1,46) = 0.01, p = 0.934, Eta = .000). There was a non-significant main effect of gender (F(1,46) = 1.40, p = 0.243, Eta = 0.030) and a non-significant main effect of trait aggression (F(1,46) = 0.46, p = 0.503, Eta = 0.010). In addition the interaction between swearing and trait aggression showed no significance (F(1,46) = 0.09, p = 0.770, Eta = 0.002). The interaction between swearing and gender was non-significant (F(1,46) = 1.14, p = 0.292, Eta = 0.024) as was the interaction between gender and trait aggression (F(1,46) = 0.24, p = 0.628, Eta = 0.005). Overall there was no significant 3-way interaction between swearing, gender and trait aggression (F(1,46) = 0.08, p = 0.780, Eta = 0.002). (For analysis output on heart rate see Appendix 8).The Effect of swearing/aggression on cold pressor latency during the cold pressor taskCold pressor latency (the length of time participants kep t their hand in the ice water) was recorded in seconds. Table 4 shows the means and standard deviations of cold pressor

Two Faces Of Multiple Personality Disorder Psychology Essay

Two Faces Of aggregate spirit Disorder Psychology EssayMultiple personality Disorder, or dissociative Identity Disorder, as it is now place by the Ameri jakes Psychiatric Association in the Diagnostic and statistical Manual of ami fitting Disorders Fourth Edition (DSM IV -TR) play alongs to be a disputed examine after decades of diagnoses, treatment, and look into. Psychiatrists, medical bear ons, psychologists, counselors and social workers, as sanitary(p) as attorneys and proves, continue to seek the validity of this mental rowdiness. While the primary quill concern of those in the medical community is a correct diagnosing in order to direct treatment, the heavy community relies on a proper diagnosing to determine both guilt and sentencing for those who use the diagnosis to plead a not guilty by reasons of insanity defense. scorn the lengthy battle between the opposing sides debating the actual existence of the disturbance, the disorder will be included in the w hitethorn 2013 variance of the DSM V. uncomplete the medical nor the legal community doubts the need for therapy or counseling of slightly plant for these patients. However, the proper treatment is, or should be, directly related to an hi-fi diagnosis. Determining the validity of Multiple Personality Disorder continues to be, after every last(predicate) these years, a severe concern. The question remains, Is there sufficient scientific research to prove the validity of Multiple Personality Disorder?I was 23 years anile when the movie When the Rabbit Howls aired on television. The original spirit level film adaptation of Truddi Chases story of extreme nestling step and subsequent diagnosis and treatment of Multiple Personality Disorder was a horrific tale of severe family dysfunction leading to vicious internal holler beginning at the age of dickens. Despite the massive platter of account of books I familiarize ask, the m any movies watched, and the television sh ows viewed, n iodin of them continue to re blood line me as this movie has. App arntly, I was not al single(a) in my fascination of Truddi Chase. Oprah Winfrey invited her to be the first guest on her radio program, as well as an early guest on her television program. Chase later(prenominal) returned in 1990 for a second interview on the Oprah Winfrey Show. Her appearance on the Oprah Winfrey Show was later heeded as virtuoso of TV Guides Top 25 Oprah Moments. Chase claimed to rescue 92 distinct personalities.Despite my awe and fascination of the life of Truddi Chase, I am left wondering is this possible? Does this disorder actu only(a)y exist? To be able to blame all of our faults, sins, or shortcomings on approximately(a) other, someone other than our self could be the ultimate imagine for some. If one is caught in a compromising position of familiar infidelity, medicine use, driving under the settle or any other serious crime, one could simply wake up and claim someone else did this, another(prenominal) self. To walk benignly through life accepting responsibility for precisely now the noble deeds we perform, the good we display, would that not be the best of all possible lives? Perhaps. Or perhaps it is a life of tormented existence, disordered time, forgotten experiences, disrupted, fragmented pieces of a life half lived.While some claim Multiple Personality Disorder was diagnosed as early as the 1800s, the first famous or possibly infamous slipperiness in the United States was the case of Christine Costner in 1951. The classic 1957 film, The Three Faces of Eve was the story ofDr. Corbett Thigpen, a young neuropsychiatrist who treated Christine Costner ( chit-chated Eve White to protect her identicalness) in 1951. The existence of more than one personality became manifested gradually during treatment, in 1952. afterwards ab bulge out 100 therapy sessions over 2-3 years, Ms. Costner seemed well. Ms. Costner subsequently wrote three autobiog raphical books. She revealed her identity in 1977 (as Chris Costner Sizemore, her married name). She has claimed that she actually had about 20 personalities, that they were not heady until years after her treatment with Dr. Thigpen, and that they were not the result of childhood trauma, as she had reported during treatment. (Atkinson, 2009)Even after this preferably dubious case, the disorder did not fully manifest itself until after the renowned story of Sybil in the 1970s. Sybil was a television miniseries, based on a 1973 book by scholarship journalist Flora Rheta Schreiber. Sybil Dorsett was a pseudonym for the patient, Shirley Ardell Mason. Dr. Schieber was asked to write a book by the patients psychiatrist, Dr. Cornelia Wilbur while Dr.Herbert Spiegel was asked by Dr. Wilbur to consult on the case as a hypnotist. The hypnotist reported hedid not see that Ms. Mason had MPD, he believed Dr. Wilbur had suggested this to her patient, and that Ms. Masons allusions to separate personalities amounted to game playing in a hysterical patient prone to dissociation. He said that Ms. Mason told him that she had read The Three Faces of Eve during her therapy and was impressed by it. According to Dr. Spiegel, Ms. Schreiber visited him and said, But if we dont call it a multiple personality, we dont have a book The publisher wants it to be that otherwise it wont sell. After treatment (more than 2,000 sessions), Ms. Mason always hold the justice of her claims of experiencing multiple personalities (16 in all) and childhood physical and intimate abuse by her mother. (Atkinson, 2009)After the popular movie of Sybil, the diagnosis of Multiple Personality Disorder ballooned from perhaps no more than 100 beforehand to 40,000 or more 20 years later, mainly in North America. (Atkinson, 2009) Was it simply cases of misdiagnoses? Or was this a new phenomenon, a new disorder?thither are many reasons I believe the diagnosis of Multiple Personality Disorder to be faulty, o verzealous, or patently untrue. I will judge to permit both sides of this transmission line for or against the validity of this diagnosis as I set many professionals weighing in.Psychiatric, as well as medical diagnosis can change. The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) was first published in 1952. Since then it has been through five revisions the newest edition DSM V coming out in May 2013. According to the live DSM-IV-TR, Diagnostic criteria for Dissociative Identity Disorder300.14 moldiness include the future(a),A. The presence of two or more distinct identities or personality break down ins (each with its own relatively enduring pattern of perceiving, relating to, and thinking about the environment and self).B. At least two of these identities or personality states re before long take control of the persons port.C. inability to recall important personal information that is too extensive to be explained by ordinary forgetfulness.D. The disturb ance is not due to the direct physiologic effects of a substance (e.g., blackouts or chaotic behavior during alcoholic drink Intoxication) or a general medical condition (e.g., complex incomplete seizures).NoteIn children, the symptomsare not attributable to imaginary playmates or other fantasy play (American Psychiatric Association, 2000)Therefore, my first course would be that Multiple Personality Disorders appearance in the DSM was late in cosmos included and has changed with each issuance of the manual. Multiple Personality Disorder did not appear in the DSM until 1980, the Third Edition. The criteria and terminology changed in the 1994 DSM IV edition, and fit to Helen Farrell in Current Psychology, the American Psychiatric Association Work collection has proposed new symptomatic criteria for DID for DSM-5, which is scheduled to be published in May 2013. (Farrell, 2011) I have been unable to find the proposed changes, but am burning to see if they were approved and what t hose changes are. The questions remain. Why was this disorder not observed in a add up of patients prior to the 1980s? Why does the criterion continue to be so difficult to define?Many of the patients diagnosed with MPD have been entrap to have been luxuriouslyly suggestible and easily hypnotizable, with a tendency to fantasize, and perfidious in their counseling sessions. Roland Atkinson reportsSubjects who are highly hypnotizable (virtuosos) may self-induce trance states or respond to a therapists instruction to enter much(prenominal) a state with rudimentary, or change surface unwitting, cues. Thus, personalities may to a fault have been cued, even if they seemed to have emerged spontaneously. In such circumstances, patient and therapist alike may inadvertently and honestly believe in an MPD diagnosis, and in memories of childhood trauma, which are not valid. This may have occurred in the filmed cases that is, both may have been at least partly iatrogenic in origin. (Atkin son, 2009)Iatrogenic content Induced in a patient by a physicians activity, manner, or therapy. (Dictionary, 2000). In occurrence, it is not until the person is in therapy do they be buzz off cognizant of the multiple personalities. (Leuder Sharrock, 1999) (Murray, 1994) The patient becomes aware of these alter egos through regression therapy or hypnosis. Most of the patients discover they were sexually abused as children, causing such trauma, the child forms another personality to deal with the pain and mental strive. (Piper junior, 1998) The argument for the lateness in the diagnosis of MPD in patients is the clients use of repression, denial, and rationalization. According to John Murray in The Journal of Genetic Psychology, the alter egos may present themselves only during a window of diagnosibility and be unable to detect at later times, be latent in the patient. (Murray, 1994)The MPD symptoms may be present in one session only to disappear in another, much like bipolar d epression symptoms.The theme of childhood sexual abuse also becomes an issue of concern in the MPD diagnosis due to the difficulty in proving abuse. familiar abuse is very hard to confirm in a child, it becomes even more difficult in an adult victim of child sexual abuse. This is NOT to say the abuse never happened, merely that it is difficult to substantiate. As the clients are highly suggestible, implantation of false memories becomes easily arguable. A fewer of the memories are so bizarre as to be unbelievable, consider the followingone patient claimed to have witnessed a baby being barbeque alive at a family picnic in a metropolis park another patient alleged repeated sexual assaults by a lion, a baboon, and other zoo animals in her parents back pace in broad daylight. (It should be mentioned that both therapists in these cases are openhanded MPD adherents, and neither appeared to have any difficulty believing these allegations). (Piper Jr., 1998)Independent corroboratio n would be very helpful in cases such as these and sure as shooting helpful in the prosecution of current cases today, but, alas, this has never been, and will doubtfully ever be, the case.The preponderance of sexually abused patients succumbing to MPD leads to another factor of the disorder. cardinal percent of the patients are women. (Atkinson, 2009), but it has been reported to have been as high as 92 percent in a 1996 study. (Murray, 1994) Ruling out gynecological concerns, I can think of no other illness with such a high rate of gender inequality. However, one must take into consideration that girls are subjected to higher rates of childhood sexual abuse than boys are.Another concern deals with how psychiatrists and other professionals diagnosis MPD. The doctors assert that they had been alerted to the possible action of MPD when a client reported such benign symptoms as headaches, insomnia, torpor or forgetfulness. Even more ridiculous was the absolute randomness and po intlessness of the following diagnostic clues reported by August Piper Jr.glancing around the therapists office frequently blinking ones eyes changing posture, or the voices pitch or volume rolling the eyes upward laughing or showing anger suddenly covering the mouth allowing the bull to fall over ones face developing a headache clams an itch touching the face, or the chair in which one sits changing hairstyles between sessions or wearing a particular color of wearing or item of jewelry In one case cognise to the author, a leading MPD proponent claimed that the diagnosis was supported by behavior no more remarkable than the fact that the patient changed clothes some(prenominal)(prenominal) times daily and liked to wear sunglasses. (Piper Jr., 1998)With such diagnostic alerts to the doctor, one cannot be surprised at the large number of MPD cases some doctors had the probability to treat. MPD diagnosis and treatment became a cottage industry for some self-promoting doctors an d therapists. In his article Film, fame, and the fashioning of an illness, Atkinson believed the films portraying Sybil and Eve perpetuated this mass diagnosis. Many cases dual-lane features in common with false memory phenomena, such as the influence of coercive suggestion by therapists in producing the desired but remove memory reports of highly susceptible patients. (Atkinson, 2009)There are many diagnostic tools used by therapists to confirm the MPD diagnosis. A few include organise Clinical Interview for Dissociative Disorders, Dissociative Disorder Interview Schedule, Dissociative Experiences Scale, Childhood Trauma Questionnaire (Farrell, 2011) (Murray, 1994), as well as the Thematic Apperception bear witness (T.A.T) and the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) (Murray, 1994). Most notable in all of these tests and diagnostic tools is that they are all self-reporting. While many would argue you cannot discombobulate the test, I find that argument to be untr ue in some cases, particularly if an eager or leading therapist coaches the patient. However, Murray contends in a blind test for 63 adult psychiatrical patients, using the MMPI MPD profile, and properly identified 68% of the 25 MPD patients. The MMPI seemed a valuable aid in diagnosing MPD. (Murray, 1994)The fact that no clear, specific method of treatment for MPD has been established also deals a blow to MPDs validity. Even staunch supporters, such as David Hartman MSW of the Wellness Institute and psychologist Dr. John B. Murray agree that there are no particular methods of treatment and that it was all still very experimental. most of the methods currently being used are psychotherapy, p victimizeacotherapy, behavior modification, group therapy sessions (with some difficulty, I will not mention the humor I plunge in this, as I was unsure if the group therapy would include multiple personalities and one physical person), psychodynamic therapy, the use of sodium amobarbital ( a drug with sedative/hypnotic properties) and of course hypnotherapy. (Murray, 1994) (Piper Jr., 1998) (Hartman, An overview of the psychotherapy of dissociative identity disorder, 2010) (Hartman, Treatments for dissociative disorders, 2010)While hypnotherapy often led to the initial diagnosis, it is also part of the treatment. However, Murray warns while Hypnosis is usually a constructive intervention, it can be misused. (Murray, 1994) And while hypnosis provides access to secret personalities, it may enhance rather than repair the dissociation process. (Murray, 1994) In his support of hypnosis, he continues, hypnosis is useful in therapy when it helps MPD patients understand and use the past and present for better self-understanding and direction. (Murray, 1994)There are several diagnoses which MPD patients could also be diagnosed. A few include, schizophrenia, affective disorder, posttraumatic stress disorder, dissociative disorders other than MPD, depression, bipolar disorder, e ven drug abuse. Prior to the diagnosing of MPD, I would hope all other possible disorders be all told ruled out, rather than MPD being ruled in. Again, despite being a advocate of the validity of MPD, Dr. John B. Murray writes, MPD features can overlap with other psychiatric diagnoses, and clinicians have been wary of inducing MPD in patients and of treating MPD patients. (Murray, 1994) He, too, recognizes the danger of MPD inducementthough life may often be stranger than fiction, I found the ridiculousness of the many reports derived from MPD cases to further cause my doubts of its validity. I will list several I found particularly absurd. C. A. Ross writes of alters that force the patient to jump in front of a truck. The alters then go back inside just before impact, leaving the patient to experience the pain (Piper Jr., 1998), or the French adult female who spoke no German would suddenly speak in another language. Carter writes, as her French self, she could remember everything she had said or done during her forward French episodes. As a German woman, she knew nothing of her French personality. (Carter, 2008) Some multiple even have disparate immune systems and bodies, Felida X, for example, had three different personalities, each with their own illnesses. One of them even had her own pregnancy, unknown, at first, to the others. (Carter, 2008) The fact that some alter egos can create their own alter egos is also incongruous. Sheila claimed she consciously chose a masculine identity. (Layton, 1995)Another absurdity are the form alter egos may take according to their therapist, There are alters of mint of the opposite sex, of the treating therapist, of infants, television characters, and demons. Alters of Satan and God, of dogs, cats, lobsters, and stuffed animals even of people thousands of years old or from another dimension have been reported by MPD proponents. (Piper Jr., 1998)And ultimately in the area of ridiculousness, throughout the reading a bout MPD, I found time after time, journal article after journal article, from proponents to nay-sayers, apply that the alter personalities identities,, alter egos, ego states, personality states or merely alters, could number two, sixteen, ninety-two, two thousand, or even ten thousand How does a therapist keep up with these characters? After all, many are deceitful, some are aging, some stay nine years old, some will set forth yet again, some will be hidden, and others will be repressed. safekeeping track of the multiples would create a full-time job for a therapist with a single patientLastly, MPD simply does not meet the legal test. Some in the legal community have said the diagnosis may be the most contentious diagnosis introduced into the criminal judge system. (Hafemeister, 2009) In fact, most recently, courts have rejected the admissibility of DID examine, including expert testimony, because the scientific evidence failed to meet reliability standards, and therefore is not ultimately useful to the judge or jury. (Farrell, 2011) The State of West Virginia has also spoken to the validity of this controversial diagnosis, Similarly, in State v Lockhart (2000), Mr. Lockhart contested his conviction of first grad sexual assault on the basis that he was not permitted to present evidence of DID to support his insanity defense. The West Virginia Court held that the diagnosis of DID was fanciful and therefore did not meet reliability standards for evidence. (Farrell, 2011)Does it matter? Does a diagnosis of Multiple Personality Disorder versus another matter? I maintain that it does. Billy Milligan, a serial rapist from Ohio in the 1970s, was excused from any criminal responsibility with his diagnosis of MPD. In Current Psychiatry, Helen M. Ferrell writes, The court tell serial rapist Billy Milligan insane due to lack of one integrated personality and therefore not culpable of the crimes he committed. humanity outrage was extraordinary. Since this case , most DID defenses have not been successful. (Farrell, 2011)Public outrage was extraordinary. thence I am sure it was. As I suggested previously, being able to blame all of our faults, sins, or shortcomings on another, someone other than our self, could be the ultimate fantasy for some. Commit multiple rapes? Milligan would simply wake up and claim someone else did this, his other self.Another case making this argument matter, is the woman in Chicago who consulted a psychiatrist for depression.He conclude that she suffered from MPD, that she had abused her own children, and that she had gleefully participated in Satan-worshiping cult orgies where pregnant women were eviscerated and their babies eaten. Her disappointment to recall these events was attributed to alters that blocked her awareness. No one had produced any evidence for the truth of any of this, no one had seen her do anything unusual, no one had come forward to say they had participated in satanic activities with her . But no matter. The doctor notified the state that the woman was a child molester. Then, after convincing her that she had killed several adults because she had been told to do so by Satanists, he threatened to notify the legal philosophy about these criminal activities. The womans husband believed the doctors claims. He divorced her. And, of course, because she was a child molester, she lost custody of her children. (Piper Jr., 1998)The validity of a MPD diagnosis also matters so we, as counselors, therapists and others in the mental health field can provide appropriate treatment to these patients. For, despite the label we may wish to give an illness, the illness MUST be treated.Multiple Personality Disorder was a fad, a psychological trend, a craze, perhaps. Therapists, the public, even Oprah Winfrey, became enthralled by these gripping stories of abuse, human survival and the minds incredible fortitude. However, the diagnosis has led to more harm for the patients, abuse from m alingerers, and prevented those with true mental illnesses from receiving the treatment they need and deserve.