Indivdual Differences In Pain Tolerance Psychology Essay

Indivdual Differences In Pain Tolerance Psychology EssayIt is in general agreed that the intuition of some(prenominal)eration does not neverthe little depend on the noxious scuttle entirelyt, but carewise on a variety of psychological variables including an individuals horny differentiate. The amygdaloid burden is one bea of the superstar linked with the decree of both emotion and distressingness (Lapate, Lee, Salomons, van Reekum, Grieschar Davidson, 2012). This region has overly been affect in indication enmity and the manage of cursing. The true train look ated to sum up on previous work feeling at into the hypoalgesic sum of verbalize on torment (Stephens, Atkins and Kingston, 2009 Stephens Umland 2011) whilst as well as examining the social function of indication enmity and sexuality. Participants consisted of 50 students from the University of key Lancashire. They took part in two insensate vasoconstrictive job trials whilst each cu rsing or ite step the news show chair. They also actualized the mark Aggression Questionnaire (Buss Perry, 1992). Physiological reads of marrow straddle and systolic/diastolic strain blackjack were taken along with mothy vasoconstrictor latency. It was importuate that execration had no impact on put out al clinical depressionance and there were no differences in physiological reading amongst any of the delimitates. However, the results showed that both manlikes and females who scored utmostschool on the trait hostility questionnaire could withstand the cold vasoconstrictor labor for eternal than those scurvy in trait invasion. Males also lasted protracted on the cold pressor task than females across both the scourge and non- cuss particularises. The pretermit of findings with regards to verbalise could be ascribable to the manner in which participants were asked to curse. Despite this, the findings do support the idea that individual differences nee d to be taken into count when submiting discommode and when dealing with inconvenience in the clinical population. physical injure has been subject to vast amounts of query across various disciplines. From an evolutionary point of view, distract serves an important purpose. For example, it motivates action to escape or poopcel noxious stimuli (Ploghaus, Tracey, Gati, Clare, Menon, Matthews, Nicholas Rawlins, 1999). The more than that is discovered about the physiological and psychological processes intricate in the perception of pain, the more complex it has become (Ogden, 2007). Tradition tout ensembley, the main clay of learnk into pain has been on the pharmacological control of pain and has been rivet on the spinal cord processes of pain relief. As more is existence learnt about the different types of pain modality systems it is becoming clearer that pharmacology is not the only way to manipulate these mechanisms (Villemure Bushnell, 2002). More recent evidence has been provided development neuroimaging as a way of life to supercharge explore these mechanisms.Functional neuroimaging has shown that real areas of the brain are activated when pain is experienced. These include the thalamus, somatosensory and prefrontal cortices and the anterior cingulate cortex (Ploghaus et al, 1999). However, recent question on pain has center more on the routine that emotions see in pain regulation. The current view is of pain is much more multi balanceal. This means the perception of pain does not necessarily depend on the level of noxious input rather it is heavily influenced by many psychological variables (Wiech Tracey, 2009). The emotional dimension of pain is further supported by findings that show a gigantic percentage of neurons in the medial thalamus that respond to noxious stimuli applied right away to the skin are changeable depending on the motivational and emotional state of the animal (Price, 2002 cited in Wickens, 2009). Theref ore it is necessary to study other areas of the brain in relation to pain.More and more research is showing that the amygdaloid nucleus may play an important role in the integration of affective regulation and pain perception (Lapate, Lee, Salomons, van Reekum, Grieschar Davidson, 2012). Using a junto of behavioural, physiological and neuroimaging methods (Lapate et al. (2012) demonst arrayd that both pain and emotion regulation are reflected in amygdala function. Other recent studies restrain also foc enforced on the influence emotions assimilate on pain. For example, Godinho,Magnin,Frot,Perche Garcia-Larrea (2006) demonst grazed that empathy with other peoples ugly increased a participants own reported pain intensity. In addition, De Wied and Verbaten (2001) conducted a study looking at the payoff positive and prejudicious pictures would aim on participants pain valuation reserve. They implant that participants viewing the positive pictures prior to the task could withs tand pain for longer than participants viewing the banish pictures before the task. With regards to negative emotions it has been free-base that inducing anger or sadness (Rainville, Bao Chrtien, 2005) or a depressed mood (Berna, Leknes, Holmes, Edwards, Goodwin Tracey, 2010) in healthy participants increases pain intensity and leads to individuals evaluation pain as more unpleasant than if these negative emotions had not been induced. disposed(p) that emotions are linked to the effects of pain, research has also explored the role they play in its regulation. For example recent research has looked at the effects of curse on pain tolerance.The use of taboo voice communication, or gadfly, is a bombastic yet understudied part of human language (Van Lancker Cummings, 1999) which is used across all cultures (Pinker, 2007). Swearing can be used as a means to express emotion, particularly negative. The primary meanings of offensive spoken communication are connotative (Jay Ja nschewitz, 2008) rather than denotative meaning they have an emotional feeling clear from the actual meaning of the word. As soon as a electric razor learns to speak, they learn to curse. Children learn that cursing is a form of coping with taste and it has been hypothesised that macrocosm punished for cursing as a child can lead to the words holding a negative emotional intension for the user (Jay, King Duncan, 2006). Therefore it is important to explore how swear words effect emotions compared to normal language.It has been suggested that the connotations and denotations of words are actually processed and stored in different parts of the brain, with denotation organismness primarily dealt with in the neocortex of the left hemisphere and connotation being processed across connections among the neocortex and the limbic system in the right hemisphere (Pinker, 2007). interestingly it appears that the neuropathology of blaspheme is distinct from the main language areas of the brain. This can be seen in cases of severely aphasic patients where cursing is done with almost perfect representative in resemblance to the patients disabilities in other areas of language and speech (Van Lancker Cummings, 1999). It has also been run aground that for patients suffering from coprolalia (the obscene linguistic outbursts of Gilles de la Tourettes syndrome) the symptoms are the alike (although culturally specific taboos) in different languages which is evidence to support the act of cursing as having a neurobiological grounding (Pinker, 2007). The amygdala has also been implicated in imprecation with neuroimaging studies showing increased activation in this area of the brain on hearing/saying taboo words (Jay, 2000). However, despite jinx being common in both clinical and non-clinical populations, it is a relatively neglected area of study. This may be collect partly to a universal negative reaction to profanity (Van Lancker Cummings, 1999). In particular it is surprising that swearword as a result to pain has received much(prenominal) little attention in the scientific community.To go steady there appears to be only two studies in the area of cursing as a rejoinder to pain, both of which were conducted by Dr Richard Stephens (Stephens, Atkins and Kingston, 2009Stephens, et al. 2009 Stephens Umland 2011).In the petty(a) of these studies Stephens et al. (2009) looked at sworn statement as a response to pain by inquire participants to submerge their afford in freezing cold ice pee (the cold pressor task). They hypothesised that cursing would be a maladaptive response to pain. In total 67 participants took part in a swearing and non-swearing trial. In the swearing trial they were asked to repeat a swear word they would use if in pain and in the non-swearing trial they were asked what word they could use for a table. Stephens took purport sum up readings as well as exploitation a perceived pain scale. In this study he foun d that swearing increased cold pressor latency (i.e. the meter that they could hold the line their hand in the ice pee), ununplowedered pain perception and was attended by an increased heart rate. The increased heart rate is indicative mood of compassionate nervous system activation, or the bid or outflow response. As this study included both male and female participants the component of gender based differences in pain tolerance had to be considered. man this is a physical difference, the emotional effect of swearing for males compared to females could affect pain tolerance.The main gender difference with regard to pain tolerance found in Stephens et al.s (2009) study was that males could withstand the cold pressor task for longer than females. Women have been found to show greater sensitivity to experimentally induceds pain than men (Riley, Robinson, Wise, Myers Fillingim, 1998) although a review of studies conducted over the previous(prenominal) ten geezerhood lookin g at pain and gender suggests that pain tolerance is the only stride in which there is signifi sky difference in the midst of males and females during the cold pressor task (Racinea, Tousignant-Laammec, Kloda, Dione, Dupuis Choinire, 2012). Other gender differences in the study by Stephens et al. (2009) were observed with females having a greater reduction in perceived pain and a greater increase in heart rate during the swearing fountain. This could be due to gender differences in swearing. For example, it has been found that females perceive more power in swear words than males (Dewaele, 2004). It has also been found that although swearing frequency is similar across both genders, males tend to be more offensive than females (Jay Janschewitz, 2008). There have also been inconsistent results in studies looking at physiological responses to pain in men and women. Maixner and Humphrey (1993) found that women responded to pain with an increased heart rate, as shown in Stephens et al. (2009), and men responded to pain with an increase in personal line of credit wardrobe. However a more recent study conducted by alAbsi, Peterson and Wittmers (2002) found a relationship amongst pitch insistence and pain perception only amongst their female participants whilst other studies have found no evidence of gender differences when looking at the personal credit line pressure/pain relationship (Helfer McCubbin, 2001 Poudevigne, OConner Pasley, 2002). These gender differences could go some way to rationalise why swearing has the different effects on pain perception and physiological responses.In a second study conducted by Stephens Umland (2011) replicated earlier findings in a second study on 71 participants. , most of the results from the early study were replicated. Participants were able to keep their hand in the cold peeing for longer if they were swearing, and heart rate was also increased. With regards toHowever, when they looked at gender differences they found males lasted longer during the cold pressor task than females as before but this cadence there was no dramatic change in heart rate for the female participants.One possible reason for swearing being an effective response to pain is that it could activate part of the brain cognise as the Rage Circuit. This is an evolutionary response in mammals which goes from part of the amygdala, done the hypothalamus accordingly into the midbrain. It is like a sudden reflex response to pain or frustration. When this happens the rage circuit triggers the parts of the brain connected with negative emotion including words with a strong emotional connotation much(prenominal) as swearing (Pinker, 2007). Indeed, Stephens et al. (2009) suggested that swearing may be effective due to it inducing a negative emotion despite previous research suggesting that negative emotion actually decreases pain tolerance and increases pain perception (Berna et al., 2010 De Wied Verbaten, 2001 Rainville et al., 2005). It should be noted nonetheless that such research tends to consider the emotional state prior to the experience of pain rather than the emotional response to noxious stimuli (Rainville, Bao Chrtien, 2005).Another explanation for the hypoalgesic effect of swearing could be the role of the amygdala in the fight or flight response. The central nucleus of the pathway projects to the hypothalamus which then triggers the sympathetic nervous system resulting in the fight or flight response of raised heart rate and daub pressure (Wickens, 2009). This response can be activated by a number of different stimuli including pain and can increase pain tolerance and decrease the perception of pain. Further activation of the amygdala, such as through with(predicate) swearing, may increase physiological reactions further resulting in this mechanism being even more effective against pain.Negative emotions such as misgiving and depression have received a lot of attention in the fiel d of pain research. It is becoming apparent that other negative emotions, such as anger, fear and trespass may also be mired in the perception of pain (Quartana, Bounds, Yoon, Goodin Burns, 2010). Aggression is one of the negative emotions that have been suggested to be linked to swearing (Stephens Umland, 2011). Many studies have been conducted in the past on whether pain elicits antagonism, but there has been little research into whether belligerence as a trait has an effect on pain tolerance and pain perception. In a study conducted by Seguin, Pihl, Boulerice, Tremblay Harden (1996) jejune boys were asked to take part in a pain tolerance task assessed via finger pressure pain. mark aggression was recorded as stable, shaky or no history. The results suggested that boys classed as unstable aggressors displayed the lowest pain tolerance, whereas boys classed as stable aggressors displayed the nobleest pain tolerance. Another study found that male participants who display ed naughty levels and frequency of aggression could endure longer periods of pain compared to males with lower levels of aggression (Niel, Hunnicut-Ferguson, Reidy, Martines Zeichner, 2007). This seems to suggest that aggression does, in some way, play a role in pain tolerance. The main issue arising from these studies is that they only included male participants. A more recent study looking at a sample of both males and females found no significant relationship among pain tolerance and trait aggression once the mens conformity to a masculine gender role had been controlled for (Reidy, Dimmick, MacDonald, Zeichner, 2009). These conflicting results exaltedlight the need for further research into the role of trait aggression in the experience of pain alongside the effects of swearing and including both male and female participants.The amygdala has already been mentioned in connection with pain modulation, swearing and emotion however it has also been linked with trait aggression . In a recent study 20 volunteers underwent brain scans which revealed a significant negative correlation mingled with trait aggression and amygdala volume (Matthies, Rusch, Weber, Lieb, Phillipsen, Tuescher et al., 2012). Due to this and the previous chimerical research into the role of trait aggression and pain, a high/low trait aggression condition get out be included in the current study to see if there is any fundamental interaction surrounded by trait aggression and swearing during the cold pressor task.The main aim of the current study is to try and replicate the results found by Stephens et al. (2009 2011). A cold pressor task leave alone be used as the noxious stimuli with swearing, gender and trait aggression being compared with regards to cold pressor latency. Heart rate allow be recorded as in Stephens et al. (2009 2011) but the current study exit also record systolic and diastolic blood pressure. These physiological responses were not metric in the legitimate studies on swearing and pain and would provide more evidence that the sympathetic nervous system is activated to a greater degree whilst swearing as well as giving more insight into the blood pressure and pain relationship (Helfer McCubbin, 2001 Poudevigne, OConner Pasley, 2002).Based on previous research several hypotheses were generated. In line with the findings of Stephens et al. (2009 2011) it is hypothesised that cold pressor latency will be longer in the swearing condition compared to the non-swearing condition for males and females. It is also pass judgment that physiological responses (systolic/diastolic blood pressure and heart rate) will be higher in the swearing condition compared to the non-swearing condition. Additionally, males are expected to withstand the noxious stimulus (cold pressor task) for longer than females across the swearing and non-swearing conditions. In line with Stephens et al. (2009), but not Stephens Umland (2011) it is hypothesised that females will display a greater increase in heart rate (and therefore systolic and diastolic blood pressure) in the swearing condition in comparison to the males.HypothesisIn line with Stephens et al., (2009 2011) dusty pressor latency will be longer in the swearing condition compared to the non-swearing condition for males and females.systolic blood pressure will be higher in the swearing condition compared to the non-swearing condition for males and females.Diastolic blood pressure will be higher in the swearing condition compared to the non-swearing condition for males and females.Heart rate will be higher in the swearing condition compared to the non-swearing condition for males and females.Overall males will withstand the noxious stimulus (cold pressor task) for longer than females across the swearing and the non-swearing conditions.In line with Stephens et al., (2009), but not Stephens Umland (2011)Females will display a greater increase in heart rate (and therefore systolic and diast olic blood pressure) in the swearing condition in comparison to the males.Due to the inconclusive research into the role of trait aggression and pain tolerance no specific hypothesis will be generated for this variable. Instead it will be examined whether trait aggression will have any effect on systolic blood pressure, diastolic blood pressure, heart rate and cold pressor latency across the swearing and non-swearing conditions and also whether there are any gender differences.METHOD markA 2 x 2 x 2 involved subjects design was use for this study. The between subjects factors were gender (male/female) and trait aggression (high/low). The at heart factor was swearing with all participants taking part in both the swearing and the non-swearing condition. The order of conditions (swearing/non-swearing) was counterbalanced for each participant. The dependent variables measured were systolic blood pressure (mmHg), diastolic blood pressure (mmHg), heart rate (BPM) and cold pressor laten cy (length of time participants kept their hand in the cold water in seconds). The cold pressor task was employed as the painful stimulus. To avoid demand effects participants were not inform of the true nature of the task until they were delegal briefed.PARTICIPANTSThe participants consisted of 50 students attending various courses at the University of Central Lancashire. They were recruited using both opportunity sampling and through the research participation pool where students receive credit for taking part in research. Participation was entirely voluntary. There were 25 females and 25 males with ages ranging from 18 to 44 years. Mean age was 23.4 years (SD = 5.71). Participants were screened for existing heart conditions, high/low blood pressure and circulatory problems. No participants were excluded from the study on the basis of this binding.MATERIALSPrior to taking part in the study, participants were given a brief sheet (see Appendix 1 for brief) and screened using a hea lth screening questionnaire provided by the University of Central Lancashire (see Appendix 2 for Health Screening Questionnaire). For the Cold Pressor Task a pailful filled with a change of cold water and ice was used. Prior to each task a thermometer was used to check the temperature was 0C. For baseline readings and between tasks a pail containing room temperature water (25 C) was used. Physiological readings were obtained using a LifeSource UA-767 Plus utensil which measures both blood pressure (systolic and diastolic) and heart rate.Trait aggression was measured using a trait aggression questionnaire (Buss Perry, 1992). This questionnaire consists of 29 items which participants rank on a likert scale of one to five with one being not at all like you and five being completely like you. Examples of statements are Once in a while I cant control the urge to strike another person and I proclaim my friends openly when I disagree with them. Within the questionnaire are four subsc ales which measure verbal aggression, physical aggression, hostility and anger. For the purposes of this study the overall trait aggression score was used where a higher score on the questionnaire equals a higher level of trait aggression. The questionnaire has been shown to have good internal consonance ( = .89) as well as test-retest reliability (r = .80 Buss Perry, 1992). (See Appendix 3 for Trait Aggression Questionnaire). After completing the aggression questionnaire participants were made full aware of the nature of the study through the debrief (see Appendix 4 for debrief).PROCEDUREFor the task students individually attended a research testing ground on campus at the University of Central Lancashire. They were informed that the study would be looking into physiological responses to the cold pressor task and asked to complete a health screening questionnaire. Following this participants were asked to make themselves comfortable whilst the blood pressure/heart rate cuff was placed around their non- superior arm before ingress their dominant hand up to the wrist in a bucket of room temperature water for three legal proceeding. At the end of the three minutes a baseline blood pressure and heart rate reading were recorded. Participants were then asked for what swear word they would use if they were to bang their thumb with a hammer and also what word they would use to describe a chair. Whilst repeating their chosen word for either cursing or chair, participants submerged their dominant hand in the cold water. They were given the instruction to keep their hand in the water until it became too uncomfortable or painful. A time limit of three minutes was imposed due to safety reasons and 11 participants reached the limit in one or both conditions. During the task, heart rate and blood pressure were recorded every 30 seconds. Once they removed their hand they were asked to submerge it back in the bucket of room temperature water for three minutes. Following this participants were asked to repeat the initial cold pressor task, this time repeating the chosen word not used in the first condition. Order of conditions was counter-balanced for all participants.Following both cold pressor tasks participants were asked to complete the aggression questionnaire before being fully debriefed. The trait aggression questionnaires were scored and then a median(prenominal) split performed. Possible trait aggression pull ahead weave from 29 145. Participants in this study scored from 49 113 with a median of 69.5. Trait aggression was then split into high or low, with high being equal to, or more than 69.5, (n25) and low being less than 69.5 (n25). The research was conducted with the approval of the ethics committee at the University of Central LancashireThe research was conducted with the approval of the ethics committee at the University of Central LancashireRESULTSFor the purpose of analysis, averages were taken of the systolic, diastolic and h eart rate readings for male and female participants with high and low trait aggression in each condition (swearing/non-swearing). Cold pressor latency was recorded in seconds. the trait aggression questionnaires were scored and then a median split performed. Possible trait aggression scores range from 29 145. Participants in this study scored from 49 113 with a median of 69.5. Trait aggression was then split into high or low, with high being equal to, or more than 69.5, (n25) and low being less than 69.5 (n25). (For stark(a) data refer to Appendix 5)The effects of swearing/aggression on systolic blood pressure during the cold pressor taskSystolic blood pressure (mmHg) was recorded during the cold pressor task. Table 1 shows the means and prototype deviations of systolic blood pressure during the swearing and non-swearing conditions for high/low trait aggressive males and females.Table 1 Means (and standard deviations) of Systolic Blood Pressure (mmHg) across swearing/non-swearin g conditions for high/low trait aggressive males/females.HIGH pugnacity emit AGGRESSION entireness whammy young-begetting(prenominal)125.24(20.95)129.21(16.05)127.15(18.48) womanish123.31(12.45)119.81(11.65)121.49(11.92)TOTAL124.31(17.07)124.32(14.45)124.32(11.92)NON SWEARINGMALE121.45(16.46)129.48(19.54)125.30(18.09)FEMALE119.33(13.77)116.44(11.28)117.82(12.36)TOTAL120.43(14.95)122.70(16.82)121.56(15.79)A 2 (trait aggression high/low) x 2 (gender male/female) x 2 (swearing/non-swearing) mixed subjects factorial analysis of variance revealed no significant main effect of swearing condition on systolic blood pressure (F(1,46) = 1.57, p = 0.217, Eta = 0.033). There was a non-significant main effect of gender (F(1,46) = 2.95, p = 0.093, Eta = 0.060) and a non-significant main effect of trait aggression (F(1,46) = 0.13, p = 0.718, Eta = 0.003). In addition, the interaction between swearing and trait aggression showed no significance (F(1,46) = 0.29, p = 0.593, Eta = 0.006). The interac tion between swearing and gender was non-significant (F(1,46) = 0.19, p = 0.662, Eta = 0.004) as was the interaction between gender and trait aggression (F(1,46) = 1.42, p = 0.240, Eta = 0.030). Overall there was no significant 3-way interaction between swearing, gender and trait aggression (F(1,46) = 0.16, p = 0.691, Eta = 0.003). (For analysis create on systolic blood pressure see Appendix 6).The Effect of swearing/aggression on diastolic blood pressure during the cold pressor taskDiastolic blood pressure (mmHg) was recorded during the cold pressor task. Table 2 shows the means and standard deviations of diastolic blood pressure during the swearing and non-swearing conditions for high/low trait aggressive males and females.Table 2 Means (and standard deviations) of Diastolic Blood Pressure (mmHg) across swearing/non-swearing conditions for high/low trait aggressive males/females.HIGH AGGRESSIONLOW AGGRESSIONTOTALSWEARINGMALE78.73(17.66)87.37(12.75)82.88(15.81)FEMALE85.63(9.85)79. 50(16.37)82.44(13.72)TOTAL82.04(14.58)83.28(14.99)82.66(14.65)NON SWEARINGMALE80.56(13.05)86.24(13.05)82.88(15.81)FEMALE85.21(8.81)85.74(10.06)85.49(9.29)TOTAL82.79(11.24)85.98(11.78)84.39(11.51)A 2 (trait aggression high/low) x 2 (gender male/female) x 2 (swearing/non-swearing) mixed subjects factorial ANOVA revealed no significant main effect of swearing condition on diastolic blood pressure (F(1,46) = 0.65, p = 0.425, Eta = 0.014). There was a non-significant main effect of gender (F(1,46) = 0.07, p = 0.801, Eta = 0.001) and a non-significant main effect of trait aggression (F(1,46) = 0.48, p = 0.491, Eta = 0.010). In addition the interaction between swearing and trait aggression showed no significance (F(1,46) = 0.21, p = 0.651, Eta = 0.004). The interaction between swearing and gender was non-significant (F(1,46) = 0.40, p = 0.531, Eta = 0.009) as was the interaction between gender and trait aggression (F(1,46) = 2.51, p = 0.120, Eta = 0.030). Overall there was no significant 3 -way interaction between swearing, gender and trait aggression (F(1,46) = 1.41, p = 0.241, Eta = 0.030). (For analysis output on diastolic blood pressure see Appendix 7).The Effect of swearing/aggression on heart rate during the cold pressor taskHeart rate (BPM) was recorded during the cold pressor task. Table 3 shows the means and standard deviations of heart rate during the swearing and non-swearing conditions for high/low trait aggressive males and females.Table 3 Means (and standard deviations) of heart rate (bpm) across swearing/non-swearing conditions for high/low trait aggressive males/females.HIGH AGGRESSIONLOW AGGRESSIONTOTALSWEARINGMALE83.79(11.45)81.93(15.86)82.90(13.48)FEMALE92.10(16.79)87.34(16.14)86.92(16.29)TOTAL87.78(14.59)84.74(15.91)86.26(15.19)NON SWEARINGMALE84.57(20.16)84.91(16.13)84.73(17.96)FEMALE89.88(12.40)85.17(16.42)87.43(14.53)TOTAL87.12(16.76)85.04(15.94)86.08(16.22)A 2 (trait aggression high/low) x 2 (gender male/female) x 2 (swearing/non-swearing) mixe d subjects factorial ANOVA revealed no significant main effect of swearing condition on heart rate (F(1,46) = 0.01, p = 0.934, Eta = .000). There was a non-significant main effect of gender (F(1,46) = 1.40, p = 0.243, Eta = 0.030) and a non-significant main effect of trait aggression (F(1,46) = 0.46, p = 0.503, Eta = 0.010). In addition the interaction between swearing and trait aggression showed no significance (F(1,46) = 0.09, p = 0.770, Eta = 0.002). The interaction between swearing and gender was non-significant (F(1,46) = 1.14, p = 0.292, Eta = 0.024) as was the interaction between gender and trait aggression (F(1,46) = 0.24, p = 0.628, Eta = 0.005). Overall there was no significant 3-way interaction between swearing, gender and trait aggression (F(1,46) = 0.08, p = 0.780, Eta = 0.002). (For analysis output on heart rate see Appendix 8).The Effect of swearing/aggression on cold pressor latency during the cold pressor taskCold pressor latency (the length of time participants kep t their hand in the ice water) was recorded in seconds. Table 4 shows the means and standard deviations of cold pressor