Vapour Pressure as a Function of Temperature of Ether

drying up Pres current as a become of Temperature of ethoxyethaneXin WangTitleTo mea veritable the enthalpy of vaporization and the change state oral sex of diethyl divinyl ether by cooling the ether down and continuously arranging a series of different temperature renditions and their corresponding vapour gouge surveys. squeezeVapour mechanical press p of ether chthonian a series of different temperatures T were measured and terce repeats were done. The three graphs of ln(p) against 1/T were plot, all of them showed a nice linear relationship amongst ln(p) and 1/T . thusly the gradient which was tinct to Hvap/R was apply, and hence the recite value of Hvap of three repeats was decided as the final conduct . The stewing elevation was calculated by utilise Hvap and the final value employ of constant C was also the mean of three repeats constants obtained. Error abridgment and improvements some(prenominal) focused on the leaking of apparatus and the validi ties of measurements obtained.IntroductionThermodynamics is a actually important fictitious character of chemistry and chemical studies. It involves many studies about get-up-and-go much(prenominal)(prenominal) as the transfer of cypher and the conservation of energy. For this test which is to mull the vapor pressure as a function of temperature, the thermodynamic part which should be focused on is that a dodging would tends to make its Gibbs waive Energy which is the energy free to do work minimum at a constant temperature and pressure.In this investigate, a single and sodding(a) increase is used and the study is about the sense of equilibrium between its unruffled human body and its gaseous phase at a constant pressure and temperature. If the pure compound liquid is placed inside a unsympathetic container, under different temperature and different pressure, there will always be a equilibrium between the liquid phase and gaseous phase. This thermodynamic equilibriu m will be at different position payable to the temperature and pressure Therefore, the region of the temperature and pressure where the compound changes from liquid to gases or reversibly has been specify as phase boundaries, which idler be found in a graph of pressure against temperature. To be more than specific, the temperature is the temperature of the system, but the pressure mentioned is the vapour pressure. The vapour pressure is delineate as the pressure of the vapour which is in equilibrium with its liquid in the closed container, and it does vary with the temperature.According to the abet law of thermodynamics which indicates At equilibrium, the chemical potentiality of a substance is the equal throughout a sample, regardless(prenominal) of how many phases ar present. 1 , a equality for the dickens chemical potentials of two phases cigarette be obtained, which shows the chemical potential of the liquid is equal to the chemical potential of the gases in equilibr ium in the closed container.To make this simpler, the chemical potential which is the molar Gibbs free energy 1 is introduced. Therefore, at a constant pressure and temperature, is equal to the first derivative instrument of G with respect to n, where G is the Gibbs free energy and n is the number of moles.As phase line is represented by the line which separates the liquid phase region and gaseous phase region in a graph of vapour pressure against temperature, therefore the gradient of the phase boundary which is written as dp/dT can be considered. In the closed container, the overall chemical potential of the system is always constant by considering conservation of energy. Therefore, the change in of liquid phase should always be equal to the change in of gaseous phase when temperature and pressure change, which can be expressed as d(liquid) = d(gases)1.The fundamental comparison dU = TdS PdV 2 can be used to derive a nonher equality of d. Because of H = U + pV 3, therefor e dH = dU + d(pV) = dU + pdV + Vdp is derived. As known, G = H -TS and and because dG = dH d(TS) = dH TdS SdT is obtained. By combining the two derived pars and the fundamental equation mentioned above, dG = -SdT + Vdp can then be obtained finally. referable to the definition of , equation d = -SdT + Vdp can be derived.If d = -SdT + Vdp is substituted into d(liquid) = d(gases), V(gases) V(liquid)dp = S(gases) S(liquid)dT can be derived. Therefore, dp/dT = S/T where S is defined as the the atomic number 16 of phase transition which can be equal to S(gases) S(liquid) and T is defined as the volumes of phase transition which can be equal to V(gases) V(liquid).Due to the perfect gas law which is pV = nTR, where R is the gas constant which is equal to 8.314 J K-1 mol-1 and T is the temperature in kelvins. For which is molar, therefore n = 1 and then pV = RT, so V = RT/p is obtained for gases. The effrontery that V = V(gases) V(liquid) V(gases) 2 can be made as the volume of liquid in the closed system is much small than the volume of gases, and hence V = RT/p can be derived. For S, as Hvap = TS can be derived receivable to the equilibrium, so S = Hvap /T is then derived. By substituting the two new equations for S and T into dp/dT = S/T, dp/dT = pHvap /RT2 can be obtained. Then do the integration for the equation dp/dT = pHvap /RT2 , ln(p) = -Hvap/RT + C can be derived, where C is a constant.For the equation ln(p) = -Hvap/RT + C, a graph of ln(p) against 1/T can be plotted to find Hvap which is the enthalpy of vaporization can obtained from the gradient of the graph ascribable to the linear relationship between ln(p) and 1/T. Therefore, Hvap = -gradient RTo use the equation to find the churning point of the compound used, due to the definition of simmering point, just substitute pressure = 1 atmosphere 1 obturate into the equation to find the corresponding T which is therefore the boiling point. Therefore, ln(1) = 0 = -Hvap/RTboil + C, and hence Tboil = Hvap/RC can be used for calculation.EquipmentMethylated spirits, cardice, ether(diethyl ether), tweezers, a spacious dewar flask, a little dewar flask, wasted dewar flasks, clamps, experimental vacuum behave-up with air warmheartedness connected, stopwatch, electrical mixer, thermometers, funnels, beakersExperimentTurned on the digital vacuum cipher and then took down the electric-light myelin A from the apparatus set, some ether was added into the incandescent lamp and then the bulb was reconnected to the apparatus. Next, prepared methylated spirits was added to a wide dewar, then teeming cardice was transferred from the the main container into a small container and added to the dewar with methylated spirits by victimization a tweezer. Enough cardice was added to make the methylated spirits reach a actually wretched temperature which was about -78. afterwards the temperature of the methylated spirits was low enough, some of the mixture was poured into a smaller dewar and then the cold trap was submerged by the mixture in the smaller dewar which was clamped and therefore fixed to continuously cold the cold trap. Then the air pump was turned on, the whack 1 which was vacuum to Ether in the bulb A and the overwork 3 which was vacuum to melodic line were both closed while the beleaguer 2 which was vacuum to Transducer was open. later on the cold trap was cold enough, open Tap 1 to boil the ether for seconds to make sure all the air inside those tubes were wield out, and then closed Tap 1 and measure the rate of leaking by closing Tap 2 as well and then meter the amount of pressure increased by looking at the digital vacuum gauge in one minute by using a stopwatch. The thermometer and the electrical mixer were well setted up around the bulb A as a thermostat bath, then submerged the bulb A with ether inside into the remaining mixture in the extensive dewar and clamped the hulky dewar to make it fixed. Then continuously add card ice into the large dewar and the smaller dewar to cool down the ether and keep the cold trap unflurried cold. When the temperature of the mixture in the large dewar reached about -78, the large dewar was removed and Tap 2 was closed with Tap 1 open. The mixture in the large dewar was the pored into a wasted dewar and then the dewar was allowed to warm up. Then the ether in the bulb A was allowed to warm up to room temperature and cold strike hard water in a beaker was used to submerge the bulb A to help warm up. aft(prenominal) a enough long judgment of conviction was used for warming up, the thermometer was touched to the bulb A to measure the temperature of the ether at room temperature and this temperature reading and the corresponding pressure reading were both put down as the first pair of entropy. The empty large dewar had also been warmed up already, fresh methylated spirits was then added to the dewar and the bulb A was submerged into the fresh mixture with the thermos tat bath set also submerged in the mixture. The thermostat bath was started by round on the electrical mixer, at the same judgment of conviction, Tap 3 and Tap 2 were still closed while Tap 1 was open. For obtaining data sets, a small amount of cardice was added each time to make sure the temperature only went down by 2 to 3 degrees or kelvins. The temperature reading and its corresponding pressure reading were both recorded after adding the cardice and hold for both reading to be steady. The experiment was finished until the temperature had reached about -55 degrees . After finishing the experiment, the electrical mixer was then turned off and the Tap 1 and the Tap 2 were closed but the Tap 3 was then opened. The air pump was switched off after that. Next, both the large dewar and the smaller dewar were removed, and the methylated mixture in both dewars were poured back into the the container of methylated spirits using a funnel.The experiment had been repeated for three time a nd therefore three data sets were obtained. And all the repeats were done by using the same apparatus under the same condition.ResultsDuring the experiments, the raw data recorded for temperature was in degree and pressure was in mbar. See control board 1. For 1/T, Temperature was changed into the unit of kelvin. For ln(p), pressure was changed into the unit of bar. See Appendix A, Appendix B and Appendix C. convey 1Run 2Run 3T /degreesp /mbarT /degreesp /mbarT /degreesp /mbar156618511145829547544844327476339313854424-1342-23162378-4296-6268-2330-7253-10216-4291-12205-14182-7250-15174-18150-10220-18150-21126-12193-21132-25102-14175-25cv-2791-17155-3180-3173-20132-3466-3559-22116-3753-3846-2695-4143-4237-2980-4438-4530-3365-4732-4826-3653-5126-5022-4041-5523-5220-4235-6018-5715-4432-5913-4825-6211-5220-5417-5614-5912Table 1. Raw data from the experiments signifier 1. ln(p) against 1/T for Run 1Figure 2. ln(p) against 1/T fro Run 2Figure 3. ln(p) against 1/T for Run 3Rate of leaking of pressure of the apparatus = 2 mbar/minTo obtain Hvap, the average value of gradients of three repeats which were obtained from Figure 1, Figure 2 and Figure 3 was used to calculate the final result Hvap. This was the same for the constant C, therefore the mean value of constants C of three repeats was used as the final result of C.The average gradient value = (-3381.1) + (-3048.6) + (-3287.6) 3 = -3239.1 KHvap = -gradient R = -3239.1 8.314 = 26929.8774 J mol-1Constant C = (11.329 + 10.087 + 10.969) 3 = 10.795Boiling point = Tboil = Hvap/RC = 26929.8774/(8.314 10.795) = 300.0555813 K 26.9 (to 3 s.f.)Data AnalysisThe theoretic value of the enthalpy of vaporization of diethyl ether is 27140 J mol-1 at 25 4 , therefore, character of error of Hvap = (27140 26929.8774) 27140 snow% 0.774% (to 3 s.f.)The theoretical value of the boiling point of diethyl ether is 34 5, therefore, the percentage of error of boiling point = (34 26.9) 34 100% 20.9% (to 3 s.f.) incredulity i n T = (0.25 1) 100% = 25%Uncertainty in 1/T = (0.25 12) 100% = 25%Uncertainty in p = (0.5 11) 100% 4.55% (to 3 s.f.)Uncertainty in ln(p) = (0.5 11) 100% 4.55% (to 3 s.f.)Uncertainty in Hvap = uncertainty in gradient = 25% + 4.55% = 29.55%Uncertainty in constant C = 29.55%Uncertainty in boiling point Tboil = 29.55% + 29.55% = 59.1%The values of R2 which are coefficients of determination were all shown to be plumb close to 1, therefore, the linear correlation between ln(p) and T was shown to be very nice.The percentage of error of boiling point is much larger than the percentage of error of Hvap, and the uncertainty of boiling point is even larger due to the uncertainties of 1/T and ln(p). This might come from two main sources of errors. unrivaled is the leaking of the experimental apparatus and the other is not high enough validities of temperature and pressure measurements obtained due to other errors like human errors.For the leaking of the apparatus, the rate of leaking w as measured as 2 mbar/min. To be more specif, the leaking was caused by the incompletely sealed connections between those field glass tubes. The time from starting to fulfil down measurements to finishing the experiment was about half an hour, this has led to a large uncertainty in the pressure measurements. Therefore, the readings of pressure at the lower temperature are much less accurate and smaller than the actual value that they should be, this shifted the gradient to a higher(prenominal) value, but the more serious effect was on the constant C which is the intercept with the axis of ln(p). As pressure was first recorded in mbar, when changing it into the unit of bar, the value was less than 1, therefore ln(p) is less than zero, a decrease in the pressure value can lead to a large change in the value of ln(p). So the constant C is much higher than the actual value. Although the percentage of error of Hvap is small, but this does not mean the experiment was very accurate becau se its uncertainty is quite large, and this low percentage error might due to the combination of different errors.For not high enough validities of temperature and pressure measurements obtained. The human error of recording temperature has the largest effect, and it has been indicated by the uncertainty of temperature reading which is 25%, this uncertainty is quite large enough to lead to inaccurate temperature readings and therefore the large uncertainties of the enthalpy of vaporization and boiling point. Another error causing low validities is the time used to see until the temperature and pressure readings to be steady, which can definitely lead to more leaking of pressure. Although the experiment was about 30-minute long, but some readings were recorded before they became steady, and this would make he readings recorded higher than the actual ones.ImprovementsTo reduce the error caused by the leaking of the apparatus, more advanced apparatus much be used. The leaking in these experiments was mostly caused by the incompletely sealed connections between those glass tube. Therefore, a set-up which has all glass tubes well connected without any crevice would be an ideal choice, this physical body of set-up should be an entirety and can effectively avoid leaking. If the problem of leaking is solved, the time for waiting until the readings to become steady each time can be as long as possible to make sure the measurements are as accurate as they can.To reduce the human error on taking down the readings of temperature and pressure, computers and sensors are suggested. For example, thermocouples 6 which are common temperature sensors used in industry, this type of temperature sensors can directly provide the electrical readings of temperature on the sieve of the equipment and the size is fairly nice for using in laboratories. Computers can be used to take down the reading on those electrical equipment such as temperature sensors and the digital vacuum gauge b y using the softwares or internal programs.More precautions must be payed attention. Therefore, make sure the ether used is pure enough and the experimental apparatus especially the bulb is clean to prevent from impurities, and during the step of boiling the ether by vacuuming the bulb, take a longer time to boil the ether to make sure that all the air in the tubes can be swept out. mop upIn conclusion, the graphs have proved that the linear relationship between ln(p) and 1/T was reliable. Therefore, the main equation ln(p) = -Hvap/RT + C can be used to find the enthalpy of vaporization and the boiling point of ether and the assumption which has been made about the volumes is reliable in this case. However, the apparatus and some technics much be improved to reduce errors and then obtain accurate results.References1 6. Vapour public press a a Function of Temperature, 1st Year animal(prenominal) Chemistry laboratory 2013 lab script, p. 22 6. Vapour Pressure a a Function of Tempera ture, 1st Year Physical Chemistry Laboratory 2013 lab script, p. 33 Enthalpy. Available from http//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enthalpy Accessed twenty-sixth March 20144 Majer, V. Wagner, Z. Svoboda, V. Cadek, V., diary of Chemical Thermodynamics, 1980 , vol. 12, 4 p. 387 3925 Gomberg, M., Journal of the American Chemical Society, 1923 , vol. 45, p. 398 3986 TemperatureSensors. Available from https//controls.engin.umich.edu/wiki/index.php/TemperatureSensors Accessed 26th March 2014Appendix ARun 1Temperature/degreesPressure/mbar1/T (T in kelvin)ln(p) (p in bar)156610.003470415-0.41400143995470.003544214-0.60330647774760.003569516-0.74233742544240.003608154-0.85802182423780.003634381-0.972861083-23300.003687996-1.108662625-42910.0037154-1.234432012-72500.00375728-1.386294361-102200.003800114-1.514127733-121930.003829217-1.64506509-141750.003858769-1.742969305-171550.003903963-1.864330162-201320.003950227-2.024953356-221160.003981684-2.154165088-26950.004046126-2.353878387-29800.00409584 3-2.525728644-33650.004164064-2.733368009-36530.00421674-2.937463365-40410.004289084-3.194183212-42350.004326195-3.352407217-44320.004363954-3.442019376-48250.004441483-3.688879454-52200.004521818-3.912023005-54170.004563085-4.074541935-56140.004605112-4.268697949-59120.004669624-4.422848629Appendix BRun 2Temperature/degreePressure/mbar1/T (T in kelvin)ln(p) (p in bar)85110.00355682-0.67138568954480.003595182-0.80296204733930.00362122-0.933945667-13420.003674444-1.072944542-42960.0037154-1.217395825-72530.00375728-1.37436579-122050.003829217-1.5847453-151740.003873717-1.74869998-181500.003919263-1.897119985-211320.003965893-2.024953356-251050.004029821-2.253794929-31800.004129672-2.525728644-34660.004181476-2.718100537-37530.004234597-2.937463365-41430.00430756-3.146555163-44380.004363954-3.270169119-47320.004421844-3.442019376-51260.004501463-3.649658741-55230.004584002-3.772261063-60180.004691532-4.017383521Appendix CRun 3Temperature/degreePressure/mbar1/T (T in kelvin)ln(p) (p in bar)145820.0034825-0.54128483144320.003608154-0.83932969113850.003647638-0.954511945-23160.003687996-1.152013065-62680.003743215-1.316768298-102160.003800114-1.532476871-141820.003858769-1.703748592-181500.003919263-1.897119985-211260.003965893-2.071473372-251020.